About the Author |
|
v | |
Introduction |
|
vii | |
|
Part 1 Creating Material for the First Stars |
|
|
1 | (32) |
|
Chapter 1 The Creation of the First Matter |
|
|
3 | (30) |
|
|
3 | (3) |
|
1.2 The Components of Atoms |
|
|
6 | (9) |
|
1.2.1 The Discovery and Properties of the Electron |
|
|
6 | (4) |
|
1.2.2 The Discovery of Protons and Neutrons |
|
|
10 | (3) |
|
1.2.3 The Elusive Neutrino |
|
|
13 | (2) |
|
|
15 | (4) |
|
|
19 | (2) |
|
|
19 | (1) |
|
|
19 | (2) |
|
1.5 How the Universe Began |
|
|
21 | (8) |
|
1.5.1 The Expanding Universe |
|
|
21 | (2) |
|
1.5.2 The Big Bang Hypothesis |
|
|
23 | (2) |
|
1.5.3 The Creation of Particles and Atoms |
|
|
25 | (4) |
|
1.6 Dark Matter and Dark Energy |
|
|
29 | (2) |
|
|
31 | (2) |
|
|
33 | (62) |
|
Chapter 2 Some Useful Physical Theory |
|
|
35 | (26) |
|
2.1 The Gravitational Potential Energy of a Spherically-Symmetric Sphere |
|
|
35 | (2) |
|
|
37 | (2) |
|
2.3 The Jeans Critical Mass |
|
|
39 | (3) |
|
|
42 | (5) |
|
2.4.1 The Relationship of the Virial Theorem to Free Fall |
|
|
45 | (2) |
|
2.5 Gravitational Instability |
|
|
47 | (2) |
|
2.6 The Equipartition Theorem |
|
|
49 | (1) |
|
|
50 | (2) |
|
|
52 | (2) |
|
|
54 | (3) |
|
|
57 | (2) |
|
|
59 | (2) |
|
Chapter 3 The Evolution of the Universe |
|
|
61 | (12) |
|
3.1 The Structure of the Universe |
|
|
61 | (2) |
|
3.2 The First Condensations |
|
|
63 | (3) |
|
3.3 The Development of Galaxies and Larger Structures |
|
|
66 | (2) |
|
3.4 Forming the First Stars |
|
|
68 | (3) |
|
|
71 | (2) |
|
Chapter 4 The Formation and Evolution of Stars |
|
|
73 | (22) |
|
4.1 From Protostar to Main-Sequence Star |
|
|
73 | (5) |
|
4.2 Types of Pressure Within a Star |
|
|
78 | (1) |
|
4.3 Evolution from the Main Sequence for Moderate and Low-Mass Stars |
|
|
79 | (4) |
|
4.4 Evolution from the Main Sequence for High-Mass Stars |
|
|
83 | (3) |
|
4.5 The Ages of Globular Clusters |
|
|
86 | (2) |
|
4.6 The Interstellar Medium |
|
|
88 | (1) |
|
4.7 The Formation of Dark Cool Clouds |
|
|
88 | (2) |
|
4.8 The Formation of Protostars |
|
|
90 | (1) |
|
4.9 Types of Clusters and Their Locations |
|
|
91 | (2) |
|
|
93 | (2) |
|
Part 3 The Structure and Composition of Stars |
|
|
95 | (22) |
|
Chapter 5 The Equilibrium of Main-Sequence Stars |
|
|
97 | (8) |
|
5.1 Conditions for Modelling a Main-Sequence Star |
|
|
97 | (1) |
|
5.2 The Pressure Gradient |
|
|
98 | (1) |
|
5.3 The Gradient of Included Mass |
|
|
99 | (1) |
|
5.4 The Luminosity Gradient |
|
|
100 | (1) |
|
5.5 The Temperature Gradient |
|
|
100 | (2) |
|
|
102 | (1) |
|
|
103 | (2) |
|
Chapter 6 Finding the Compositions of Stars |
|
|
105 | (12) |
|
6.1 Atoms, Isotopes, Molecules, Ions and Energy Levels |
|
|
105 | (2) |
|
|
107 | (2) |
|
6.3 Fraunhofer Lines: The Interaction of Light with Atoms |
|
|
109 | (2) |
|
6.4 The Composition of Stars |
|
|
111 | (2) |
|
|
113 | (2) |
|
|
115 | (2) |
|
Part 4 The Distances of Stars |
|
|
117 | (32) |
|
Chapter 7 Finding the Distances of Nearby Stationary Stars |
|
|
119 | (10) |
|
7.1 How Far Away is That Church Steeple? |
|
|
120 | (3) |
|
7.2 Radians and Small Angles |
|
|
123 | (1) |
|
7.3 How Far Away is That Stationary Star? |
|
|
124 | (3) |
|
7.4 Space-based Measurements |
|
|
127 | (1) |
|
|
128 | (1) |
|
Chapter 8 Finding the Distances and Velocities of Nearby Moving Stars |
|
|
129 | (6) |
|
|
129 | (1) |
|
8.2 The Components of a Star's Velocity |
|
|
130 | (1) |
|
8.3 Finding the Distance and Transverse Velocity of a Nearby Star |
|
|
130 | (2) |
|
8.4 Determining the Radial Velocity of a Star |
|
|
132 | (1) |
|
|
133 | (2) |
|
Chapter 9 Finding Distances to Faraway Stars |
|
|
135 | (14) |
|
9.1 Finding the Temperatures of Stars |
|
|
135 | (3) |
|
9.2 Luminosity, Magnitude and Brightness |
|
|
138 | (2) |
|
9.3 Distance Measurement Out to 10,000 pc Using Main-Sequence Stars |
|
|
140 | (2) |
|
9.4 Distance Measurement Using Cepheid Variables |
|
|
142 | (2) |
|
9.5 Distance Measurement Using Rotating Galaxies |
|
|
144 | (1) |
|
9.6 Distance Estimation from Type 1a Supernovae |
|
|
145 | (2) |
|
|
147 | (2) |
|
Part 5 The General Properties of Stars |
|
|
149 | (36) |
|
Chapter 10 Determining the Radii of Stars |
|
|
151 | (12) |
|
10.1 The Radii of Main-Sequence Stars |
|
|
151 | (2) |
|
10.2 The Radii of Giant Stars |
|
|
153 | (2) |
|
10.3 The Radii of White Dwarfs |
|
|
155 | (1) |
|
10.3.1 The Nature of White Dwarf Material |
|
|
155 | (1) |
|
|
156 | (1) |
|
10.4 Basis of a Theoretical Approach to White Dwarf Structure |
|
|
156 | (1) |
|
10.4.1 Degeneracy Kinetic Energy |
|
|
156 | (1) |
|
10.5 An Approximate Treatment of White Dwarf Structure |
|
|
157 | (1) |
|
10.6 A Relativistic Treatment |
|
|
158 | (2) |
|
10.7 Neutron Stars and Black Holes |
|
|
160 | (1) |
|
|
161 | (2) |
|
Chapter 11 Determining the Masses of Stars |
|
|
163 | (16) |
|
|
163 | (1) |
|
|
163 | (2) |
|
11.3 The Characteristics of an Ellipse |
|
|
165 | (1) |
|
11.4 The Centre of Mass and the Orbits of Binary Stars |
|
|
166 | (2) |
|
11.5 The Mathematics of Binary Star Orbits |
|
|
168 | (1) |
|
11.6 Determining the Masses of Stars in Binary Systems |
|
|
169 | (7) |
|
|
169 | (1) |
|
11.6.2 Spectroscopic and Eclipsing Binaries |
|
|
170 | (4) |
|
11.6.3 Astrometric Binary System |
|
|
174 | (2) |
|
|
176 | (3) |
|
Chapter 12 Other Stars and Star-like Objects |
|
|
179 | (6) |
|
|
179 | (2) |
|
|
181 | (1) |
|
|
182 | (1) |
|
|
183 | (2) |
|
|
185 | (106) |
|
Chapter 13 Planets About Other Stars |
|
|
187 | (16) |
|
13.1 Planets Around Pulsars |
|
|
187 | (2) |
|
13.2 Detecting Exoplanets Around Main-Sequence Stars |
|
|
189 | (4) |
|
13.3 Transiting Exoplanets |
|
|
193 | (1) |
|
13.4 The Orbits of Exoplanets |
|
|
194 | (4) |
|
13.4.1 Semi-Major Axis and Eccentricity |
|
|
194 | (1) |
|
13.4.2 Inclination (Spin-Orbit Misalignment) |
|
|
195 | (3) |
|
|
198 | (1) |
|
13.6 Other Features Associated with Planets |
|
|
198 | (1) |
|
13.7 Requirements for a Plausible Theory of Planet Formation |
|
|
199 | (1) |
|
|
200 | (3) |
|
Chapter 14 The Nebula Theory |
|
|
203 | (34) |
|
14.1 The Laplace Nebula Theory |
|
|
203 | (2) |
|
14.2 Revisiting Nebula Ideas and the Angular Momentum Problem |
|
|
205 | (12) |
|
14.2.1 Angular Momentum Transfer by a Magnetic Field |
|
|
207 | (1) |
|
14.2.2 The Armitage and Clarke Mechanism |
|
|
208 | (1) |
|
14.2.3 A Mechanical Process for Transferring Angular Momentum |
|
|
209 | (2) |
|
14.2.4 Angular Momentum Distribution in a Newly Formed Star |
|
|
211 | (1) |
|
14.2.5 Magnetic Braking of Stellar Spin |
|
|
211 | (6) |
|
14.3 The Formation of Planets |
|
|
217 | (8) |
|
14.3.1 Converting a Dusty Disk into Planets |
|
|
218 | (1) |
|
14.3.2 Forming Planetesimals |
|
|
218 | (3) |
|
14.3.3 From Planetesimals to Planets |
|
|
221 | (4) |
|
14.4 Migration Mechanisms |
|
|
225 | (5) |
|
|
225 | (1) |
|
|
225 | (1) |
|
14.4.3 The Interaction of a Planet with Planetesimals |
|
|
226 | (1) |
|
|
227 | (3) |
|
14.5 The Proportion of Stars with Planets |
|
|
230 | (1) |
|
14.6 Smaller Bodies of the Solar System |
|
|
231 | (3) |
|
|
231 | (1) |
|
|
232 | (1) |
|
|
232 | (1) |
|
|
233 | (1) |
|
14.7 The Inclinations of Exoplanet Orbits |
|
|
234 | (1) |
|
14.8 Exoplanets Around Binary Stars |
|
|
234 | (1) |
|
|
235 | (1) |
|
14.10 An Overview of the Nebula Theory |
|
|
235 | (1) |
|
|
236 | (1) |
|
Chapter 15 The Capture Theory |
|
|
237 | (54) |
|
|
237 | (1) |
|
15.2 Observations Relating to Star Formation |
|
|
237 | (2) |
|
15.3 Interactions in a Star-Forming Cloud |
|
|
239 | (1) |
|
15.4 Capture-Theory Simulations |
|
|
240 | (4) |
|
15.5 The Proportion of Stars with Planets |
|
|
244 | (4) |
|
15.6 Angular Momentum in the Solar System |
|
|
248 | (1) |
|
15.7 The Capture Theory and Circumstellar Disks |
|
|
249 | (2) |
|
15.8 The Evolution of Planetary Orbits |
|
|
251 | (3) |
|
15.9 Exoplanets Around Binary Stars |
|
|
254 | (1) |
|
15.10 Commensurabilities of Planetary Orbits |
|
|
255 | (2) |
|
15.11 The Inclinations of Exoplanet Orbits |
|
|
257 | (2) |
|
15.12 Satellites and Angular Momentum |
|
|
259 | (1) |
|
15.13 A Mechanism for Satellite Formation |
|
|
260 | (4) |
|
|
261 | (1) |
|
15.13.2 Formation of Satellitesimals |
|
|
262 | (1) |
|
15.13.3 From Satellitesimals to Satellites |
|
|
263 | (1) |
|
15.14 The Problem of the Terrestrial Planets |
|
|
264 | (1) |
|
15.15 Deuterium in the Colliding Planets |
|
|
265 | (1) |
|
15.16 The Planetary Collision; Earth and Venus |
|
|
266 | (3) |
|
|
269 | (2) |
|
|
271 | (2) |
|
15.19 The Neptune--Pluto--Triton System |
|
|
273 | (2) |
|
15.20 Asteroids and Comets |
|
|
275 | (4) |
|
|
279 | (1) |
|
|
280 | (4) |
|
15.23 Isotopic Anomalies in Meteorites |
|
|
284 | (4) |
|
15.24 An Overview of the Capture Theory |
|
|
288 | (3) |
Problems 15 |
|
290 | (39) |
|
|
291 | (38) |
|
Appendix A Planck's Radiation Law and Quantum Physics |
|
|
293 | (6) |
|
A.1 The Rayleigh--Jeans Radiation Law |
|
|
294 | (1) |
|
A.2 The Planck Radiation Law |
|
|
295 | (3) |
|
|
298 | (1) |
|
Appendix B The Relativistic Doppler Effect |
|
|
299 | (5) |
|
B.1 A Non-Relativistic Moving Clock |
|
|
300 | (1) |
|
B.2 A Relativistic Moving Clock |
|
|
301 | (2) |
|
B.3 The Relativistic Doppler Effect Equation |
|
|
303 | (1) |
|
|
304 | (1) |
|
Appendix C Energy Production in Stars |
|
|
305 | (12) |
|
C.1 Proton--Proton Reactions from a Classical Viewpoint |
|
|
306 | (1) |
|
C.2 An Approximate Quantum-Mechanical Approach |
|
|
307 | (1) |
|
C.3 A More Precise Quantum-Mechanical Approach |
|
|
308 | (1) |
|
C.3.1 The Distribution of the Relative Energies of Protons |
|
|
308 | (1) |
|
C.3.2 The Rate of Making Close Approaches |
|
|
309 | (1) |
|
C.3.3 The Tunnelling Probability |
|
|
310 | (1) |
|
C.3.4 The Cross-Section Factor |
|
|
311 | (1) |
|
C.3.5 The Energy Generation Function |
|
|
312 | (1) |
|
C.4 Nuclear Reaction Chains in the Sun |
|
|
313 | (3) |
|
|
316 | (1) |
|
Appendix D Radiation Pressure |
|
|
317 | (4) |
|
D.1 A Photon Model for Finding Radiation Pressure |
|
|
317 | (1) |
|
D.2 The Energy Density from the Planck Radiation Equation |
|
|
318 | (1) |
|
|
319 | (2) |
|
Appendix E Electron Degeneracy Pressure |
|
|
321 | (4) |
|
E.1 Position--Momentum Space |
|
|
321 | (1) |
|
E.2 The Energy Density in Degenerate Material |
|
|
322 | (3) |
|
Appendix F The Eddington Accretion Mechanism |
|
|
325 | (4) |
|
F.1 The Accretion Cross Section |
|
|
325 | (2) |
|
|
327 | (2) |
Solutions to Problems |
|
329 | (26) |
References |
|
355 | (4) |
Name Index |
|
359 | (4) |
Subject Index |
|
363 | |