E-grāmata: Aerosol Sampling - Science, Standards, Instrumentation and Applications: Science, Standards, Instrumentation and Applications [Wiley Online]

Preface		xvii
A. SCIENTIFIC FRAMEWORK FOR AEROSOL SAMPLING		1	(218)
Introduction		3	(10)
Aerosols		3	(1)
Particle size		4	(1)
Elementary particle size statistics		5	(3)
Aerosol measurement		8	(1)
Sampler performance characteristics		9	(4)
References		12	(1)
Fluid and aerosol mechanical background		13	(22)
Fluid mechanical background		13	(9)
Introduction		13	(1)
Equations of fluid motion		13	(2)
Streamlines and streamsurfaces		15	(1)
Boundary layers		16	(2)
Stagnation		18	(2)
Potential flow		20	(1)
Turbulence		20	(2)
Aerosol mechanics		22	(13)
Particle drag force and mobility		22	(1)
Drag coefficient		22	(1)
Slip		23	(1)
General equation of motion under the influence of an external force		24	(1)
Particle motion without external forces		25	(2)
Particle aerodynamic diameter		27	(1)
Impaction		28	(2)
Molecular diffusion		30	(2)
Turbulent diffusion		32	(1)
References		33	(2)
Experimental methods in aerosol sampler studies		35	(36)
Introduction		35	(1)
Methodology for assessing sampler performance		35	(3)
The direct (trajectory) method		35	(1)
The indirect (comparison) method		36	(1)
Critique of the alternative methods		37	(1)
Scaling relationships for aerosol samplers		38	(1)
Test facilities		39	(11)
Moving air		40	(5)
Calm air		45	(3)
Slowly moving air		48	(2)
Test aerosol generation		50	(10)
Idealised test aerosols		50	(2)
Dry-dispersed dusts		52	(5)
Aerosol materials		57	(2)
Electric charge effects		59	(1)
Reference methods		60	(1)
Assessment of collected aerosol		60	(1)
Aerosol sampler test protocols and procedures		61	(10)
References		68	(3)
The nature of air flow near aerosol samplers		71	(22)
Introduction		71	(1)
Line and point sink samplers		71	(2)
Thin-walled slot and tube entries		73	(2)
Facing the freestream		73	(1)
Other orientations		74	(1)
Thick-walled tubes		75	(1)
Simple blunt samplers facing the wind		76	(6)
Two-dimensional blunt sampling systems		76	(4)
Axially symmetric blunt sampling systems		80	(2)
Blunt samplers with orientations other than facing the wind		82	(7)
A cylindrical blunt sampler		82	(2)
Flow stability		84	(2)
A spherical blunt sampler		86	(3)
More complex sampling systems		89	(1)
Effects of freestream turbulence		90	(3)
References		90	(3)
Aerosol aspiration in moving air		93	(38)
Introduction		93	(1)
Thin-walled tube samplers		94	(22)
Qualitative picture of aerosol transport		94	(2)
Impaction model for a thin-walled tube facing the freestream		96	(2)
Physical definition of impaction efficiency for aerosol sampling		98	(1)
Experimental studies for thin-walled tubes facing the freestream		98	(6)
Experimental studies for thin-walled tubes at other orientations		104	(1)
Impaction model for other orientations		105	(4)
Mathematical models		109	(5)
Conditions for `acceptable' isokinetic sampling		114	(2)
Blunt samplers		116	(15)
Impaction model for a blunt sampler facing the freestream		116	(4)
Experimental investigations of blunt samplers of simple shape facing the wind		120	(3)
Blunt samplers at other orientations		123	(2)
Mathematical and numerical approaches to blunt samplers		125	(1)
Orientation-averaged conditions		126	(1)
References		127	(4)
Aspiration in calm and slowly moving air		131	(26)
Introduction		131	(1)
Sampling in perfectly calm air		131	(18)
Qualitative description		131	(4)
Experimental studies for sampling in perfectly calm air		135	(3)
Analytical models for aspiration efficiency in calm air		138	(6)
Descriptive modeling of aspiration efficiency		144	(3)
Criteria for `representative sampling' in calm air		147	(2)
Slowly moving air		149	(8)
Definition of calm air		150	(2)
Intermediate conditions		152	(3)
References		155	(2)
Interferences to aerosol sampling		157	(36)
Introduction		157	(1)
Interferences during aspiration		157	(16)
Effects of turbulence on aspiration		158	(4)
Effects of electrostatic forces on aspiration		162	(3)
External wall effects		165	(8)
Interferences after aspiration		173	(20)
Deposition losses inside a straight sampling tube		173	(7)
Deposition losses inside a bent sampling tube		180	(1)
Deposition inside a thin-walled tube facing into the wind		181	(3)
Deposition inside a thin-walled tube at other orientations		184	(1)
Rebound of particles from internal walls		185	(1)
More complicated systems		186	(1)
Electrostatic effects		186	(2)
References		188	(5)
Option for aerosol particle size selection after aspiration		193	(26)
Introduction		193	(1)
Elutriation		194	(3)
Vertical elutriation		194	(1)
Horizontal elutriation		195	(2)
Filtration by porous foam media		197	(4)
Centrifugation		201	(4)
Impaction		205	(6)
Conventional impaction		205	(4)
Low pressure and micro-orifice impaction		209	(1)
Virtual impaction		209	(2)
Diffusion		211	(2)
Deposition by diffusion in laminar flow through tubes		211	(1)
Deposition by diffusion in flow through screens		212	(1)
Other particle size-selective mechanisms		213	(6)
Electrostatic precipitation		213	(1)
Thermal precipitation		214	(1)
Optical processes		215	(1)
References		215	(4)
B. STANDARDS FOR AEROSOLS		219	(90)
Framework for aerosol sampling in working, living and ambient environments		221	(16)
Introduction		221	(1)
Exposure to aerosols		222	(5)
The human respiratory tract		223	(2)
Definitions of exposure		225	(2)
Variability of exposure		227	(1)
Framework for health-related aerosol sampling		227	(6)
Criteria		227	(1)
Sampling instrumentation		228	(1)
Analytical methods		228	(1)
Sampling strategies		229	(3)
Exposure limits		232	(1)
Overview		233	(1)
Non-health-related aerosol standards		233	(4)
References		235	(2)
Particle size-selective criteria for coarse aerosol fractions		237	(18)
Introduction		237	(1)
Experimental studies of inhalability		237	(10)
Early experimental measurements of inhalability		237	(4)
Physical basis of inhalability		241	(1)
Inhalability for very large particles		242	(2)
Inhalability at very low wind speeds		244	(3)
Particle size-selective criteria for the inhalable fraction		247	(5)
Early recommendations		248	(1)
Modern criteria for the inhalable fraction		249	(3)
Further recommendations		252	(1)
Overview		252	(3)
References		253	(2)
Particle size-selective criteria for fine aerosol fractions		255	(34)
Introduction		255	(1)
Studies of regional deposition of inhaled aerosols		255	(13)
Framework		255	(3)
Theories, simulations and models		258	(1)
Experiments for studying regional deposition		259	(1)
Results for total deposition		260	(1)
Results for extrathoracic deposition		261	(1)
Results for tracheobronchial deposition		262	(2)
Results for deposition in the alveolar region		264	(1)
Results for the deposition of fibrous aerosols		265	(1)
Results for the deposition of very fine and ultrafine aerosols		266	(2)
Criteria for fine aerosol fractions		268	(14)
Historical overview		268	(5)
Modern criteria for the thoracic and respirable aerosol fractions		273	(2)
Criteria for the extrathoracic aerosol fraction		275	(1)
Criteria for the tracheobronchial and alveolar aerosol fractions		276	(2)
Criteria for very fine aerosol fractions		278	(1)
Criteria for fibrous aerosols		279	(1)
Criteria for ultrafine aerosols		280	(2)
Overview		282	(7)
Summary		282	(1)
Precision and tolerance bands		283	(1)
International harmonisation of sampling criteria		284	(1)
References		285	(4)
Health effects and Limit values		289	(20)
Introduction		289	(1)
Aerosol-related health effects		289	(3)
Diseases of the respiratory tract		290	(1)
Diseases beyond the respiratory tract		291	(1)
The processes of standards setting		292	(1)
Occupational exposure limits (OELs)		292	(5)
Health-based exposure limits		293	(1)
Regulatory exposure limits		293	(1)
OELs for aerosols		294	(3)
Ambient atmospheric aerosol limits		297	(4)
Black smoke and fine particles		297	(1)
Establishment of the EPA PM NAAQS limit values		298	(2)
Limits for non-health-related aerosols		300	(1)
Special cases		301	(8)
Fibrous aerosols		302	(1)
Bioaerosols		303	(1)
Ultrafine aerosols		304	(1)
References		305	(4)
C. AEROSOL SAMPLING INSTRUMENTATION		309	(208)
Historical milestones in practical aerosol sampling		311	(16)
Introduction		311	(1)
Occupational aerosol sampling		312	(7)
Sampling strategies and philosophies		312	(1)
Indices of aerosol exposure		313	(1)
Early gravimetric samplers for `total' aerosol		313	(1)
Particle count samplers		314	(2)
Emergence of gravimetric samplers for the respirable fraction		316	(1)
Emergence of gravimetric samplers for `total' and inhalable aerosol		317	(1)
Other aerosol fractions		317	(1)
Sampling to measure aerosol particle size distribution		317	(1)
Direct-reading instruments		318	(1)
Overview		319	(1)
Ambient atmospheric aerosol sampling		319	(8)
Sampling strategies and philosophies		319	(1)
Indices of health-related aerosol exposure		320	(2)
Indices for coarse `nuisance' aerosols		322	(1)
Direct-reading instruments		322	(1)
Overview		322	(1)
References		323	(4)
Sampling for coarse aerosols in workplaces		327	(32)
Introduction		327	(1)
Static (or area) samplers for coarse aerosol fractions		327	(6)
`Total' aerosol		327	(1)
Inhalable aerosol		328	(5)
Personal samplers for coarse aerosol fractions		333	(19)
`Total' aerosol		333	(11)
Inhalable aerosol		344	(7)
Other samplers		351	(1)
Analysis of performance data for inhalable aerosol samplers		352	(2)
Statistics		352	(1)
Modeling		352	(2)
Passive aerosol samplers		354	(5)
References		356	(3)
Sampling for fine aerosol fractions in workplaces		359	(44)
Introduction		359	(1)
Samplers for the respirable fraction		359	(26)
Early samplers		360	(4)
Horizontal elutriators		364	(4)
Cyclones		368	(8)
Impactors		376	(2)
Porous plastic foam filter samplers		378	(5)
Other samplers		383	(2)
Sampling for `respirable' fibers		385	(1)
Samplers for the thoracic fraction		385	(6)
Vertical elutriators		386	(1)
Cyclones		386	(1)
Impactors		387	(1)
Porous plastic foam filter samplers		388	(3)
Samplers for PM2.5		391	(2)
Thoracic particle size selection for fibrous aerosols		393	(1)
Sampling for very fine aerosols		394	(1)
Ultrafine aerosols		394	(1)
Combustion-related aerosols		394	(1)
Simultaneous sampling for more than one aerosol fraction		395	(8)
References		398	(5)
Sampling in stacks and ducts		403	(14)
Introduction		403	(1)
Basic considerations		403	(1)
Stack sampling methods		404	(6)
United States of America		405	(4)
United Kingdom and elsewhere		409	(1)
Sampling probes for stack sampling		410	(4)
Standard probes		410	(1)
Velocity-sensing probes		411	(1)
Null-type probes		411	(1)
Self-compensating probes		412	(1)
Dilution		413	(1)
Sampling for determining particle size distribution in stacks		414	(1)
Direct-reading stack-monitoring instruments		415	(2)
References		415	(2)
Sampling for aerosols in the ambient atmosphere		417	(30)
Introduction		417	(1)
Sampling for coarse `nuisance' aerosols		417	(6)
Sampling for `black smoke'		423	(2)
Sampling for total suspended particulate in the ambient atmosphere		425	(7)
`Total' aerosol		425	(6)
Inhalable aerosol		431	(1)
Sampling for fine aerosol fractions in the ambient atmosphere		432	(8)
PM10		432	(3)
PM2.5		435	(4)
Ultrafine aerosols		439	(1)
Meteorological sampling		440	(7)
References		442	(5)
Sampling for the determination of particle size distribution		447	(26)
Introduction		447	(1)
Rationale		447	(1)
Aerosol spectrometers		448	(4)
Horizontal elutriators		448	(2)
Centrifuges		450	(1)
Inertial spectrometers		450	(2)
Cascade impactors		452	(13)
Outline		452	(2)
Earlier cascade impactors		454	(1)
Static cascade impactor-based samplers		454	(5)
Personal cascade impactors		459	(3)
Cascade impactors for stack sampling		462	(1)
Inversion procedures for cascade impactors		463	(2)
Other spectrometers		465	(4)
Parallel impactors		465	(1)
Cascade cyclones		466	(1)
Diffusion batteries		467	(2)
Particle size distribution analysis by microscopy		469	(4)
References		470	(3)
Sampling for bioaerosols		473	(16)
Introduction		473	(1)
Standards for bioaerosols		474	(1)
Technical issues for bioaerosol sampling		474	(2)
Early bioaerosol sampling		476	(1)
Criteria for bioaerosol sampling		477	(1)
Inertial samplers		477	(8)
Passive samplers		478	(1)
Single-stage impactors		478	(3)
Cascade impactors		481	(1)
Impingers		482	(3)
Centrifugal samplers		485	(1)
Cyclones/wetted cyclones		485	(1)
Centrifuges		485	(1)
`Total' and inhalable bioaerosol		486	(1)
Other samplers		486	(3)
References		486	(3)
Direct-reading aerosol sampling instruments		489	(28)
Introduction		489	(1)
Optical aerosol-measuring instruments		490	(13)
Physical background		490	(2)
Transmission/extinction monitoring		492	(2)
Light scattering photometry		494	(4)
Optical particle counters		498	(5)
Particle size and shape		503	(1)
Electrical particle measurement		503	(1)
Condensation nuclei/particle counters		504	(1)
Mechanical aerosol mass measurement		505	(4)
Nuclear mass detectors		509	(1)
Surface area monitoring		510	(1)
Analytical chemical methods		511	(1)
Bioaerosol monitoring		511	(6)
Fluorescence technology		511	(1)
Particle size and shape for bioaerosols		512	(1)
Hybrid systems		512	(1)
References		513	(4)
D. AEROSOL SAMPLE APPLICATIONS AND FIELD STUDIES		517	(82)
Pumps and paraphernalia		519	(18)
Introduction		519	(1)
Air moving systems		519	(5)
Pumps		520	(2)
Personal sampling pumps		522	(1)
Pulsation damping		523	(1)
Flow rate		524	(2)
Flow control		525	(1)
Flow measurement		525	(1)
Collection media		526	(7)
Filters		526	(1)
Filtration efficiency		527	(1)
Mass stability		528	(3)
Choices and applications		531	(1)
Substrates		532	(1)
Analysis of collected samples		533	(4)
Handling and transport of samples		533	(1)
Gravimetric methods		534	(1)
Chemical analysis		534	(1)
References		535	(2)
Field experience with aerosol samplers in workplaces		537	(38)
Introduction		537	(1)
Personal and static (or area) sampling		538	(1)
Relationship between `total' and inhalable aerosol		539	(10)
Side-by-side comparative studies		540	(8)
The practical impact of changes from `total' to inhalable aerosol measurement		548	(1)
Converting particle counts to particle mass		549	(9)
Respirable aerosol exposures in the coal industry		549	(3)
Respirable aerosol exposures in hard rock mining		552	(2)
Inhalable aerosol exposures in the nickel industry		554	(4)
Field experience with samplers for respirable aerosol		558	(4)
Gravimetric mass sampling		558	(1)
Workplace comparisons between optical and gravimetric aerosol samplers		559	(3)
Classification of workplace aerosols		562	(6)
Particle size distribution		562	(4)
Combined particle size measurement and chemical speciation		566	(2)
Diesel particulate matter		568	(1)
The future of workplace aerosol measurement		569	(6)
References		570	(5)
Field experience with aerosol samplers in the ambient atmosphere		575	(24)
Introduction		575	(1)
`Nuisance' dust		576	(1)
Total suspended particulate and black smoke		577	(3)
Black smoke and particle size fractions (PM10 and PM2.5)		580	(2)
Transition to particle size-selective sampling		582	(3)
PM10		585	(4)
PM2.5		589	(1)
Personal exposures to PM10 and PM2.5		589	(4)
Classification of ambient atmospheric aerosols		593	(6)
Particle size distribution		593	(1)
Chemical composition		594	(2)
Bioaerosols		596	(1)
References		596	(3)
Index		599

Professor Vincent, Professor Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan Professor Vincent holds a Ph.D. and a D.Sc. from the University of Durham, UK, the latter awarded in 1991 in consideration of "...work of high distinction constituting a substantial and original contribution to science." He is widely experienced in the occupational and environmental health sciences. He has worked in industry, in non-academic research institutions, and in three universities (Strathclyde University, University of Minnesota and the University of Michigan). His work over the past 30 years has included studies in aerosol science and fluid mechanics and their application to the atmospheric transport of pollutants, emission control from large-scale industrial processes, exposure assessment and control of airborne pollutants in environmental and occupational settings, aerosol sampling and measurement, inhalation toxicology and pharmacokinetics, occupational exposure standards setting, and international occupational health policy. In these areas he has published over 200 works. He is a past-president of the British Occupational Hygiene Society, was until recently chair of the Air Sampling Procedures Committee of the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, and was editor-in-chief of the Journal of Aerosol Science from 1988 to 1999 (where he is now an honorary (lifetime) member of the Editorial Board.