| Acknowledgments |
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xv | |
| Foreword |
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xix | |
| Part I: Legal and Practical Realities |
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3 | (16) |
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What are the differences among antiquities, archaeological materials, and ancient art? |
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3 | (1) |
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How is archaeological material defined? |
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3 | (1) |
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How are scientifically excavated objects removed from under land or water? |
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4 | (3) |
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How is ancient art defined? |
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7 | (2) |
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Are there accepted arbiters of these definitions? |
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9 | (3) |
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How have these definitions changed over time? |
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12 | (1) |
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How do different countries define antiquities? |
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13 | (1) |
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What are the differences among countries, nations, and 'state parties'? |
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13 | (1) |
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How do scholars define antiquity differently from culture to culture? |
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14 | (5) |
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2 Cultural Ownership: Past and Present |
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19 | (15) |
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Did people collect in antiquity? |
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19 | (9) |
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How did artifacts move across cultures in the ancient world? |
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28 | (1) |
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When did ancient cultures turn into modern ones? |
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29 | (1) |
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Who gets to decide whether an artwork has 'repose'- or a permanent claim to stay in its current place? |
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30 | (1) |
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What happens to cultural ownership when governments or regimes change? |
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31 | (1) |
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Why does a modern nation have a claim to an ancient culture? |
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31 | (3) |
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34 | (13) |
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What are the key issues in debate on this matter? |
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34 | (5) |
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What are the fault lines between archaeologists and those defending collecting? |
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39 | (2) |
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What is at stake in the debate? |
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41 | (1) |
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Who gets to decide the outcomes of claims and counterclaims? |
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41 | (1) |
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How has the debate changed over the last few years? |
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42 | (5) |
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4 The Cosmopolitan Argument |
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47 | (10) |
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What does the contextual argument leave unanswered? |
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47 | (1) |
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What is the cosmopolitan argument? |
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48 | (5) |
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How is it rooted in history? |
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53 | (1) |
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What practical steps are implied in the cosmopolitan argument? |
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54 | (1) |
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How has the cosmopolitan argument been received? |
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55 | (2) |
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5 Divining Originals, Pastiches, and Forgeries |
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57 | (16) |
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What are the origins of copying and forging antiquities? |
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57 | (1) |
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How is an original antiquity recognized as such? |
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58 | (3) |
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What reveals that an antiquity has been restored? |
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61 | (1) |
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What is meant by an intervention? |
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62 | (1) |
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How are replicas defined? |
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62 | (1) |
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What is meant by pastiches? |
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63 | (1) |
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How do experts identify forgeries? |
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64 | (1) |
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How long have there been forgeries? |
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65 | (1) |
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Are fakes and fraudulently restored artifacts a big part of the market? |
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66 | (1) |
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How do experts insure that works are authentic? |
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67 | (1) |
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Are there degrees of authenticity? |
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68 | (1) |
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How many forgeries make their way into established collections? |
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69 | (4) |
| Part II: Settled Law and Open Questions |
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6 International Conventions and Treaties |
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73 | (12) |
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What prompted a global conversation about conventions on cultural property? |
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73 | (1) |
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Is there a generally accepted understanding of which antiquities are legal to export and import? |
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74 | (1) |
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What are the international treaties governing what is legal? |
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75 | (2) |
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How have market nations dealt with the UNESCO Convention? |
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77 | (3) |
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How have source nations dealt with the UNESCO Convention? |
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80 | (2) |
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What treaties have come in the wake of the UNESCO Convention? |
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82 | (1) |
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What is meant by "good faith"? |
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83 | (2) |
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7 National Laws and Statutes |
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85 | (10) |
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How do national laws intersect with foreign legal systems? |
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85 | (4) |
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What are the differing laws among so-called 'source' countries protecting ancient artifacts? |
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89 | (2) |
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What are the export restrictions of art-rich nations? |
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91 | (1) |
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What are the import restrictions of nations where collecting is robust? |
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92 | (1) |
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How and where are stolen works seized by government authorities? |
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92 | (3) |
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8 Modern National Identities |
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95 | (9) |
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What modern nations first codified the concept of cultural patrimony or state ownership? |
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95 | (1) |
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How much does state ownership depend on national identities? |
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96 | (3) |
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Have there been successful challenges to state ownership? |
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99 | (2) |
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What if the evidence of state ownership is unclear? |
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101 | (1) |
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Are there legitimate claims of state ownership decoupled from national identity? |
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102 | (1) |
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Are there recently formed nations with looser claims to state ownership? |
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103 | (1) |
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9 Chance Finds, Excavation, and Looting |
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104 | (10) |
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What are the differences among chance finds, excavation, and looting? |
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104 | (1) |
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How do different nations treat chance finds? |
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105 | (1) |
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What kinds of shipwrecks have been discovered to date? |
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105 | (1) |
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What are the ownership laws governing shipwrecks? |
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106 | (3) |
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What will become of as-yet unexcavated antiquities underwater? |
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109 | (1) |
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What will become of unexcavated antiquities underground? |
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110 | (1) |
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What is the best way to care for freshly excavated works today? |
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110 | (1) |
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How does someone become a looter and what do they earn? |
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111 | (1) |
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How are source countries working to counteract looting? |
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111 | (1) |
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How do looted objects get 'laundered' so as to minimize scrutiny and suspicion? |
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112 | (1) |
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How do looted works end up on the legal art market? |
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112 | (1) |
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What protections are there to lessen looting by those charged with protecting archaeological sites? |
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113 | (1) |
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10 Acquiring Antiquities in the Marketplace |
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114 | (13) |
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What are the primary channels through which antiquities are sold? |
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114 | (1) |
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How big is the licit art market? |
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114 | (3) |
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How is the legal art market faring? |
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117 | (1) |
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And how about the illicit market? |
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117 | (1) |
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How big of a problem are chance finds? |
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118 | (2) |
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How do intentionally looted works make their way to the market? |
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120 | (1) |
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Who buys looted artworks? |
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121 | (1) |
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What is a good faith purchase under civil law? |
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122 | (1) |
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How were private collections formed in the modern era? |
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122 | (1) |
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What information about purchases accompany a bill of sale? |
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123 | (1) |
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Are collectors complicit or innocent in fostering the illicit trade? |
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123 | (4) |
| Part III: Scenarios and Solutions |
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11 Realities of Storage, Dispersal, and Display |
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127 | (9) |
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What happens once antiquities are excavated? |
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127 | (1) |
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What are the contents and state of modern museum storerooms? |
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128 | (1) |
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How well documented are artifacts in museum galleries and storerooms? |
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129 | (1) |
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What will happen to stored works in the long term? |
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130 | (1) |
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How easily do artifacts circulate for exhibitions, long-term loans, and collection sharing? |
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131 | (1) |
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How common are long-term loans or collection sharing? |
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132 | (1) |
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How have displays of antiquities changed over time? |
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133 | (3) |
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12 Capturing Antiquity: Documentation |
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136 | (9) |
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What is meant by object documentation and why is it important? |
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136 | (2) |
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What are the unique challenges in documenting antiquities? |
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138 | (2) |
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How have antiquities been documented until recently? |
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140 | (2) |
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What is the best way to identify ancient objects in the digital age? |
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142 | (1) |
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What new methods to document archaeological objects are on the horizon? |
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143 | (2) |
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13 Replication of Ancient Objects |
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145 | (9) |
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What is meant by replication? |
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145 | (1) |
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What did people in antiquity think of replication? |
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145 | (1) |
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Why were Roman copies of lost Greek originals so popular? |
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146 | (2) |
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How were replicas viewed in antiquity in Asia? |
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148 | (1) |
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How about in pre-Columbian Art? |
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148 | (1) |
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When and why did plaster casts enjoy popularity? |
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148 | (1) |
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For what purposes are replicas of antiquities in use today? |
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149 | (1) |
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Will 3D printers and manmade materials make increasingly credible duplicates of originals? |
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150 | (1) |
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Can replicas substitute for originals? |
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151 | (3) |
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14 Retention, Restitution, and Repatriation |
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154 | (13) |
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What do these terms mean? |
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154 | (1) |
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Which term is best suited to address the Parthenon Marbles? |
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155 | (1) |
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Are antiquities better off staying put or circulating? |
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156 | (2) |
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How have recent upheavals in the developing world affected the rationale for state ownership? |
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158 | (1) |
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What is "safe harbor" for ancient objects? |
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159 | (2) |
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How do restituted objects fare once returned to their source country? |
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161 | (1) |
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What are "objects in limbo"? |
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162 | (1) |
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How much provenance is deemed sufficient to take objects out of limbo? |
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163 | (1) |
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Is transparency about objects in limbo productive? |
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164 | (1) |
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Have source countries claimed any objects in limbo that are not documented as stolen? |
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164 | (1) |
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What will become of antiquities in private collections that don't meet restrictive acquisition standards? |
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165 | (2) |
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15 The Prospect of an Enlarged Legal Market |
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167 | (5) |
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Will the legal antiquities market ever expand to include source countries? |
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167 | (2) |
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What are the arguments for and objections to enlarging the licit antiquities market? |
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169 | (1) |
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What are the potential benefits to source countries in permitting a legal market? |
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170 | (1) |
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How do advocates of an expanded legal market suppose that it might develop? |
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170 | (2) |
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16 Evolving Perspectives on Ownership |
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172 | (8) |
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How are dealers and collectors coping with increasing restrictions? |
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172 | (1) |
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What are collecting institutions advocating? |
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173 | (1) |
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What are the differences between ownership and stewardship? |
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174 | (2) |
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Why don't museums sell antiquities in storage? |
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176 | (3) |
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Is leasing antiquities a viable alternative? |
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179 | (1) |
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180 | (7) |
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Are claims likely to increase in the coming years? |
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180 | (1) |
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What new technologies might safeguard antiquities from harm? |
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181 | (1) |
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How will remote sensing affect the care and study of antiquities? |
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181 | (1) |
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How much more is there to be discovered underground? |
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182 | (1) |
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Will underwater excavation become more prevalent? |
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183 | (1) |
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Will source nations ever adequately police archaeological sites? |
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183 | (1) |
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Will attitudes to the antiquities market shift? |
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183 | (1) |
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Will digital emulation and simulation of ancient contexts become more acceptable? |
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184 | (1) |
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How many forgeries might be revealed in major museum collections? |
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185 | (1) |
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Is the appetite for present distractions displacing interest in the past? |
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186 | (1) |
| Bibliography |
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187 | (56) |
| Index |
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243 | |
