In spite of the extensive attention given by research workers to aphids no comprehensive review has been published covering all aspects of aphid biology. A few small books exist on certain aspects of nomenclature, ecology, physiology and natural enemies. Aphid biology is studied by many specialists, all representing their own area of interest, therefore the only way to present this comprehensive review is by the multi-author approach. This three-volume work is compiled in a similar way to the first books in the series World Crop Pests: Spider Mites. The volumes contain contributions by more than 40 authors. In this first volume an account is given on morphology and systematics, anatomy, genetics, life cycles, ways of life, reproduction and polymorphism and interaction with the environment. These topics are followed by an in-depth study of evolution of aphids, especially in connection with the evolution of plants. In addition processes governing the development of population structure and speciation are elicited.
Morphology and Systematics 1(78) Morphology of Aphids 1(26) M. Miyazaki Introduction 1(2) Body 3(1) General Structure 3(1) Spiracles 4(1) Setae and Chaetotaxy 4(1) Waxy exudates and wax gland plates 5(2) Tubercles and projections 7(1) Head 8(1) General structure 8(2) Eyes, triommatidia and ocelli 10(1) Antennae 10(2) Clypeus 12(1) Mouthparts 13(1) Thorax 14(1) General structure 14(1) Legs 14(3) Wings 17(1) Abdomen 18(1) General structure 18(1) Sclerites 19(1) Genital and anal plates 20(1) Siphunculi 20(2) Cauda 22(1) External genital organs 23(1) Acknowledgements 23(1) References 23(4) Forms and Morphs of Aphids 27(24) M. Miyazaki Introduction 27(1) Morphs appearing in the life cycles of aphids 27(2) Fundatrix 29(1) Apterous and alate viviparous females 30(2) Gynopara, andropara and sexupara 32(1) Sexuales (male and sexual female) 33(1) Hibernating forms 34(3) Aestivating forms 37(2) Colour forms 39(1) Intramorphic colour variation 39(1) Intermorphic colour variation 40(1) Interclonal colour variation 41(2) Soldiers 43(2) Intergall migrants 45(1) Acknowledgements 46(1) References 47(4) Systematics 51(28) F.A. Ilharco A. van Harten The most important classifications 51(5) Morphological characters used for determination 56(2) Sclerotization 58(1) Cuticular surface 58(1) Wax production 58(1) Hairs or setae 59(2) Colour of live aphids 61(1) Body length and shape 62(1) Head 63(1) Antennae 63(1) Mouthparts 63(1) Tubercles 64(1) Thorax 64(1) Legs 65(1) Wings 65(1) Tubercles 65(1) Abdomen 66(1) Siphunculi 66(1) Cauda 66(1) Anal plate 66(2) Genital plate 68(1) Gonapophyses 68(1) Spiracles 68(1) Tubercles 68(1) Other characters useful for determination 69(1) Biological characters 70(1) Biochemical characters 70(3) Cytological characters 73(1) Histological characters 73(1) Parasitological characters 74(1) Synonyms 75(1) Acknowledgements 76(1) References 76(3) Anatomy and Physiology 79(84) Alimentary Tract 79(20) M.B. Ponsen Introduction 79(1) Stylets 79(3) Pharynx 82(1) Foregut 82(7) Midgut 89(1) Hindgut 90(2) Filtersystem 92(2) Mesodermal derivatives 94(1) Acknowledgements 94(1) References 94(3) Abbreviations used in Figures 97(2) Nutritional Physiology 99(24) P.N. Srivastava Introduction 99(1) Mechanism of food ingestion 99(1) Stylectomy and sap collection 100(1) Biochemical constituents of the ingesta 101(1) Nitrogen compounds 101(2) Carbohydrates 103(1) Lipids, vitamins and other compounds 103(1) Inorganic constituents 104(1) Digestive enzymes 105(1) Polysaccharidases 105(1) Invertase 106(1) Protease 107(1) Saliva 108(1) Nutritional requirements 109(1) Amino acids 109(1) Carbohydrates 110(1) Salt and trace metals 111(1) Vitamins 112(1) Lipid requirements and role of symbionts 112(1) Other factors affecting nutrition 113(1) Nutritional quality of primary and secondary hosts 113(1) Role of nutrition in reproduction and wing formation 114(1) Conclusion 114(1) Acknowledgements 115(1) References 115(8) Symbionts 123(8) E.J. Houk Introduction 123(1) Structure of mycetocytes and symbionts 123(2) Functions of symbionts 125(2) Future of symbiosis research 127(1) References 128(3) Nervous System 131(8) J. Hardie Introduction 131(1) Morphology 131(1) The brain 131(2) The suboesophageal ganglion 133(1) The thoracic ganglionic mass and ventral nerve cord 133(2) The stomatogastric system 135(1) Physiological considerations 136(1) Acknowledgements 137(1) References 137(2) Neurosecretory and Endocrine Systems 139(14) J. Hardie Introduction 139(1) Neurosecretory system 139(1) Distribution of neurosecretory cell bodies 140(2) Distribution of neurosecretory material 142(1) Ultrastructural studies 142(2) Functions of neurosecretory cells 144(1) Corpora cardiaca 145(2) Endocrine system 147(1) Corpus allatum 147(3) Prothoracic glands 150(1) Acknowledgements 150(1) References 150(3) Sensory System 153(10) M. Anderson A.K. Bromley Introduction 153(1) Eyes and ocelli 153(1) Body, legs and wings 154(1) Mouthparts 155(1) Antennae 155(2) Scape and pedicel 157(1) Flagellum 157(1) Electrophysiology 158(1) Electroantennograms 158(1) Single sensillum recordings 159(2) Conclusion 161(1) References 161(2) Reproduction, Cytogenetics and Development 163(34) R.L. Blackman Introduction 163(1) Female reproductive system 163(1) Formation of the germarium 163(1) Vivipara 164(1) Ovipara 164(1) Trophocytes 165(1) Follicle cells and ovariole sheath in viviparous aphids 166(1) Ambiphasic females 167(1) Number of ovarioles 167(1) Male reproductive system 167(1) Chromosomes 168(1) Holocentric character of aphid chromosomes 168(1) Chromosome numbers and karyoptype evolution 169(1) Karyotype variation within a species 170(1) Polyploidy 171(1) Sex determination 171(2) Oogenesis and spermatogenesis 173(1) General observations 173(1) Oogenesis of the sexual egg 174(2) Oogenesis of the parthenogenetic egg 176(4) Spermatogenesis 180(2) Development of the fertilised egg 182(1) Eggs and oviposition 182(2) Maturation and early development 184(1) Diapause 185(1) Post-diapause development and hatching 185(1) Development of the parthenogenetic embryo 186(1) Cleavage and gastrulation 186(1) Blastokinesis 187(1) Post-embryonic development 188(1) Number of instars 188(1) Paedogenesis 188(1) Instar recognition 188(1) Instar duration and development times 189(1) Larval adaptations 189(1) Conclusion 190(1) Acknowledgements 191(1) References 191(6) Biology 197(102) The Way of Life of Aphids: Host Specificity, Speciation and Distribution 197(12) A.F.G. Dixon Introduction 197(1) Host specificity 197(3) Polyphagy 200(1) Speciation 200(3) Worldwide distribution and number of species of aphids 203(2) Conclusions 205(1) Acknowledgements 206(1) References 206(3) Host Plant Finding and Acceptance 209(16) F.A. Klingauf Developmental stage, ``mood and host selection 209(1) The host selection process of a migratory winged aphid-the classification scheme 210(2) The early phase of host selection after alighting 212(1) Piercing the phloem 212(2) Attractants and repellents: vision 214(2) Attractants and deterrents: olfaction 216(1) Arrestants and deterrents 216(1) Penetration stimuli 217(1) Phagostimulants 218(1) Conclusions 219(1) Acknowledgments 220(1) References 220(5) Feeding, Adaptation and Excretion 225(30) F.A. Klingauf Structure of the mouthparts 225(2) Stylet operation 227(3) Adaptation to liquid plant food 230(1) Conditioning, clone formation, and feeding behaviour of parasitized aphids 231(2) Feeding sites 233(2) Feeding 235(1) Salivation 236(1) Feeding rate 237(1) Physiological status of host plant and aphid performance 238(1) Nitrogen content of the host plant 238(2) Age of the host plant 240(1) Abiotic treatments of the host plant 240(1) Biotic treatments of the host plant-aphids as elicitors of suitable food sources 240(1) Nutritional requirements 241(1) Nitrogen 241(1) Carbohydrates 242(1) Vitamins and minerals 242(1) Enzyme equipment 243(1) Honeydew excretion 244(1) What is honeydew? 244(1) Excretion rate 244(1) Excretion behaviour 245(1) Honeydew composition 246(1) Nutritional budgets 247(1) Acknowledgements 248(1) References 248(7) Polymorphism and Morph Determination 255(14) K. Kawada Introduction 255(1) Forms, morphs and terminology 255(1) Production of wings 256(1) Temperature 256(1) Photoperiod 257(1) Crowding 257(1) Nutrition 258(1) Ants 259(1) Forms and morphs of parents 260(1) Wing control mechanism 260(1) Production of sexual forms 261(1) Photoperiod 261(1) Temperature 262(1) Intrinsic factors 263(1) Nutrition 264(1) Larval polymorphism 265(1) Prospects 266(1) References 266(3) Parthenogenetic Reproduction and the Rate of Increase in Aphids 269(20) A.F.G. Dixon Introduction 269(1) Structure of the gonads 269(1) Intrinsic rate of increase 270(1) Developmental rate 271(4) Reproductive rate 275(4) Survival 279(3) Intra- and interspecific trends in the intrinsic rate of increase 282(3) Acknowledgements 285(1) References 285(4) Evolution and Adaptive Significance of Cyclical Parthenogenesis in Aphids 289(10) A.F.G. Dixon Introduction 289(1) Evolution 289(1) Adaptive significance of asexual and sexual reproduction 290(3) Timing of sex 293(1) Conclusion 294(1) Acknowledgements 295(1) References 296(3) Aphids and their Environment 299(68) Dispersion and Migration 299(16) Y. Robert Introduction 299(2) Crowding effects 301(2) Flight behaviour 303(1) Teneral period and take-off 304(2) Flight 306(2) Alightment-settlement 308(1) Conclusion 309(1) Acknowledgements 310(1) References 310(5) Seasonal Development in Aphids 315(6) A.F.G. Dixon Introduction 315(1) Seasonal changes in habitat quality 315(3) Synchronization with plant development 318(1) Conclusions 319(1) Acknowledgements 319(1) References 320(1) Feeding Process of Aphidoidea in Relation to Effects on their Food Plants 321(20) P.W. Miles Introduction 321(1) Methods of investigation 321(1) Outline of the feeding process 322(1) Phloem-feeding and parenchyma-feeding 323(1) Stylet penetration 324(1) Formation of stylet sheath 325(2) Functions of stylet sheath 327(4) Secretion and composition of the watery saliva 331(2) Functions of the watery saliva directly related to feeding 333(1) The saliva as a mediator of plant responses 334(1) References 335(6) Galling Aphids 341(14) J.M.S. Forrest Inductory agents 341(1) Surface galls 341(1) How galls are formed 342(1) Concentration effect 343(1) Introductory agents 344(1) Surface gells 344(1) Cecidogenesis 345(1) Internal feeding site 346(1) Pouch galls 346(2) Pineapple galls 348(1) Inducing factors 348(1) How aphids find their feeding sites 349(1) The role of galls in aphid biology 349(2) Conclusions 351(1) References 352(3) Ant Aphid Mutualism 355(12) J.H. Sudd Introduction 355(2) Benefits of mutualism to aphids 357(2) Exploitation of honeydew by ants 359(2) Competition for the services of mutualists 361(1) Do ants prey on the aphids they tend? 362(2) References 364(3) Evolution 367(48) Palaeontology and Phylogeny 367(26) O.E. Heie Introduction 367(1) Methods used in studies of fossil aphids 367(1) How to recognize a fossil insect as an aphid 368(1) Aphid faunas of the past 369(1) The Triassic 369(1) The Jurassic 370(2) The Cretaceous 372(1) Aphidoidea 373(1) Phylloxeroidea 374(1) Canadaphidoidea 375(1) Aphidomorpha incertae sedis 375(1) The Tertiary 375(6) Evolutionary patterns 381(1) Plesiomorphous and apomorphous characters 382(2) Phylogenetic considerations 384(5) References 389(4) Morphological Structures and Adaptations 393(8) O.E. Heie General adaptations 393(1) Special adaptations 394(1) Adaptations for particular hosts 394(1) Adaptations for life in galls 395(1) Adaptations for myrmecophily 396(1) Adaptations for abiotic environmental factors 396(1) Defensive adaptations against enemies 397(3) References 400(1) Evolutionary Estimation of Taxa 401(8) G.Ch. Shaposhnikov Introduction 401(1) Classification and estimation of characters 401(4) Estimation of taxa and their arrangement in the system 405(3) References 408(1) Evolution of Aphids in Relation to Evolution of Plants 409(6) G.Ch. Shaposhnikov Adaptation of aphids to their host plants 409(1) Change of host plants and origin of heteroecy 410(1) The main direction of the change of host plants in aphids 411(1) Change of ecosystems and change of aphid faunas in the past 411(2) References 413(2) Organization (Structure) of Population and Species, and Speciation 415(16) G.Ch. Shaposhnikov Introduction 415(1) Temporal structure of amphimictic populations and the origin of clonal populations 415(2) Genetic-ecological structure of populations 417(2) The spatial structure of populations 419(1) Population homeostasis 419(1) Permanent and temporary populations 420(1) Summary and conclusions on population organization 420(1) The structure of a species 421(1) The main features of a species 422(2) Modes of speciation 424(1) Experimental mode of speciation 424(3) Conclusions and some suggestions for the future 427(1) References 428(3) Glossary of terms used in
Chapters 6 and 7 431(2) General Index 433(14) Index to the Aphids 447
