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Part I General Description of a Laser and an Example |
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3 | (14) |
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3 | (1) |
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1.2 Spectral Ranges of Lasers and List of a Few Lasers |
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4 | (2) |
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6 | (1) |
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1.4 Sizes of Lasers, Cost of Lasers, and Laser Market |
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7 | (1) |
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1.5 Questions about the Laser |
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8 | (1) |
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1.6 Different Types of Lasers in the Same Spectral Range |
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9 | (1) |
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9 | (2) |
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11 | (1) |
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1.9 A Remark About the History of the Laser |
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11 | (6) |
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14 | (3) |
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17 | (26) |
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18 | (1) |
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2.2 Coherent Electromagnetic Wave |
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18 | (4) |
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22 | (4) |
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26 | (6) |
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2.5 Laser = Laser Oscillator |
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32 | (1) |
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2.6 Radiation Feedback and Threshold Condition |
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32 | (3) |
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2.7 Frequency of Laser Oscillation |
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35 | (1) |
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36 | (2) |
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2.9 Oscillation Onset Time |
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38 | (5) |
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40 | (3) |
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43 | (14) |
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3.1 Laser Resonators and Laser Mirrors |
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43 | (2) |
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3.2 V Factor and Related Quantities |
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45 | (1) |
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3.3 Number of Photons in a Resonator Mode |
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46 | (1) |
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47 | (1) |
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3.5 Fabry--Perot Interferometer |
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48 | (3) |
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3.6 Resonance Curve of a Fabry--Perot Resonator |
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51 | (1) |
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3.7 Fabry--Perot Resonator Containing a Gain Medium |
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52 | (5) |
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54 | (3) |
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4 The Active Medium: Energy Levels and Lineshape Functions |
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57 | (20) |
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4.1 Two-Level Based and Energy-Ladder Based Lasers |
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58 | (1) |
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4.2 Four-Level, Three-Level, and Two-Level Lasers |
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59 | (2) |
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4.3 Two-Band Laser and Quasiband Laser |
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61 | (2) |
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4.4 Lineshape: Homogeneous and Inhomogeneous Line Broadening |
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63 | (1) |
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64 | (4) |
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4.6 Gaussian Lineshape Function |
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68 | (1) |
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4.7 Experimental Linewidths |
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69 | (1) |
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4.8 Classical Oscillator Model of an Atom |
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69 | (2) |
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4.9 Natural Line Broadening |
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71 | (1) |
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72 | (1) |
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73 | (1) |
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4.12 Dipole Oscillator and Monopole Oscillator |
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73 | (1) |
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4.13 Three-Dimensional and Low-Dimensional Active Media |
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74 | (3) |
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75 | (2) |
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5 Titanium--Sapphire Laser |
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77 | (8) |
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5.1 Principle of the Titanium--Sapphire Laser |
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77 | (2) |
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5.2 Design of a Titanium--Sapphire Laser |
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79 | (1) |
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5.3 Absorption and Fluorescence Spectra of Titanium--Sapphire |
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80 | (1) |
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5.4 Population of the Upper Laser Level |
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81 | (1) |
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82 | (3) |
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82 | (3) |
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Part II Theoretical Basis of the Laser |
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6 Basis of the Theory of the Laser: The Einstein Coefficients |
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85 | (12) |
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6.1 Light and Atoms in a Cavity |
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85 | (2) |
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87 | (1) |
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88 | (1) |
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88 | (1) |
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6.5 The Einstein Relations |
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89 | (3) |
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6.6 Einstein Coefficients on the Energy Scale |
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92 | (1) |
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6.7 Stimulated Versus Spontaneous Emission |
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92 | (2) |
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6.8 Transition Probabilities |
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94 | (1) |
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6.9 Determination of Einstein Coefficients from Wave Functions |
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95 | (2) |
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96 | (1) |
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7 Amplification of Coherent Radiation |
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97 | (22) |
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7.1 Interaction of Monochromatic Radiation with an Ensemble of Two-Level Systems |
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98 | (2) |
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7.2 Growth and Gain Coefficient |
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100 | (3) |
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103 | (3) |
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7.4 An Effective Gain Cross Section |
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106 | (2) |
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108 | (1) |
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7.6 Gain Coefficient of Titanium--Sapphire |
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109 | (2) |
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7.7 Gain Coefficient of a Medium with an Inhomogeneously Broadened Line |
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111 | (1) |
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7.8 Gain Characteristic of a Two-Dimensional Medium |
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112 | (2) |
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7.9 Gain of Light Crossing a Two-Dimensional Medium |
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114 | (5) |
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115 | (4) |
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119 | (18) |
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119 | (2) |
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8.2 Steady State Oscillation of a Laser |
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121 | (2) |
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8.3 Balance Between Production and Loss of Photons |
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123 | (1) |
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8.4 Onset of Laser Oscillation |
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124 | (2) |
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8.5 Clamping of Population Difference |
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126 | (1) |
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8.6 Optimum Output Coupling |
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127 | (3) |
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8.7 Two Laser Rate Equations |
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130 | (1) |
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8.8 Relaxation Oscillation |
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131 | (2) |
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133 | (4) |
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136 | (1) |
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9 Driving a Laser Oscillation |
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137 | (44) |
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138 | (4) |
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9.2 Possibilities of Driving a Laser Oscillation |
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142 | (1) |
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9.3 Polarization of an Atomic Medium |
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142 | (3) |
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9.4 Quantum Mechanical Expression of the Susceptibility of an Atomic Medium |
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145 | (4) |
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9.5 Polarization of an Active Medium |
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149 | (2) |
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151 | (3) |
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9.7 Laser Oscillation Driven by a Polarization |
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154 | (8) |
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9.8 Relaxation of the Polarization |
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162 | (2) |
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164 | (4) |
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9.10 Laser-van der Pol Equation |
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168 | (2) |
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9.11 Kramers--Kronig Relations |
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170 | (1) |
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9.12 Lorentz Functions: A Survey |
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171 | (1) |
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9.13 A Third Remark About the History of the Laser |
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172 | (9) |
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175 | (6) |
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Part III Operation of a Laser |
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181 | (14) |
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10.1 Cavity Resonators in Various Areas |
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181 | (1) |
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10.2 Modes of a Cavity Resonator |
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182 | (4) |
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10.3 Modes of a Long Cavity Resonator |
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186 | (1) |
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10.4 Density of Modes of a Cavity Resonator |
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187 | (2) |
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189 | (1) |
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10.6 TE Waves and TM Waves |
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190 | (1) |
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10.7 Quasioptical Arrangement |
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191 | (4) |
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192 | (3) |
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11 Gaussian Waves and Open Resonators |
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195 | (40) |
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196 | (2) |
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198 | (2) |
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200 | (7) |
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207 | (3) |
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11.5 Stability of a Field in a Resonator |
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210 | (4) |
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214 | (5) |
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219 | (4) |
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223 | (2) |
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225 | (10) |
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231 | (4) |
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12 Different Ways of Operating a Laser |
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235 | (10) |
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12.1 Possibilities of Operating a Laser |
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235 | (1) |
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12.2 Operation of a Laser on Longitudinal Modes |
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236 | (1) |
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236 | (1) |
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237 | (1) |
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12.5 Spectral Hole Burning in Lasers Using Inhomogeneously Broadened Transitions |
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238 | (1) |
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239 | (2) |
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12.7 Longitudinal and Transverse Pumping |
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241 | (1) |
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12.8 An Application of CW Lasers: The Optical Tweezers |
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242 | (1) |
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12.9 Another Application: Gravitational Wave Detector |
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243 | (2) |
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244 | (1) |
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245 | (26) |
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246 | (5) |
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13.2 Active and Passive Mode Locking |
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251 | (2) |
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13.3 Onset of Oscillation of a Mode-Locked Titanium-Sapphire Laser |
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253 | (1) |
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13.4 Optical Frequency Comb |
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254 | (5) |
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259 | (2) |
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261 | (1) |
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13.7 Femtosecond Pulses in Chemistry |
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261 | (1) |
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13.8 Optical Frequency Analyzer |
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262 | (1) |
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13.9 Terahertz Time Domain Spectroscopy |
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263 | (2) |
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265 | (6) |
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266 | (5) |
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Part IV Types of Lasers (Except Semiconductor Lasers) |
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271 | (20) |
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14.1 Doppler Broadening of Spectral Lines |
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271 | (2) |
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14.2 Collision Broadening |
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273 | (2) |
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275 | (2) |
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277 | (1) |
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278 | (1) |
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279 | (1) |
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280 | (1) |
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281 | (3) |
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14.9 Other Gas Discharge Lasers and Optically Pumped Far Infrared Lasers |
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284 | (7) |
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286 | (5) |
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291 | (18) |
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291 | (1) |
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15.2 More About the Titanium--Sapphire Laser |
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292 | (3) |
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15.3 Other Broadband Solid State Lasers |
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295 | (1) |
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296 | (2) |
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15.5 Different Neodymium Lasers |
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298 | (1) |
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299 | (1) |
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300 | (2) |
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15.8 A Short Survey of Solid State Lasers and Impurity Ions in Solids |
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302 | (4) |
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15.9 Broadening of Transitions in Impurity Ions in Solids |
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306 | (3) |
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307 | (2) |
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16 Some Other Lasers and Laser Amplifiers |
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309 | (8) |
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309 | (2) |
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16.2 Solid State and Thin-Film Dye Laser |
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311 | (1) |
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311 | (1) |
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312 | (1) |
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313 | (1) |
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16.6 Optically Pumped Organic Lasers |
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313 | (1) |
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313 | (1) |
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16.8 High-Power Laser Amplifier |
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313 | (1) |
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314 | (1) |
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314 | (1) |
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315 | (2) |
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315 | (2) |
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317 | (8) |
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17.1 Model of a Vibronic System |
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317 | (2) |
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17.2 Gain Coefficient of a Vibronic Medium |
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319 | (2) |
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17.3 Frequency Modulation of a Two-Level System |
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321 | (3) |
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17.4 Vibronic Sideband as a Homogeneously Broadened Line |
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324 | (1) |
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324 | (1) |
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18 Amplification of Radiation in a Doped Glass Fiber |
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325 | (22) |
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18.1 Survey of the Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier |
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326 | (2) |
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18.2 Energy Levels of Erbium Ions in Glass and Quasiband Model |
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328 | (3) |
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18.3 Quasi-Fermi Energy of a Gas of Excited-Impurity Quasiparticles |
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331 | (2) |
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18.4 Condition of Gain of Light Propagating in a Fiber |
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333 | (1) |
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18.5 Energy Level Broadening |
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334 | (2) |
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18.6 Calculation of the Gain Coefficient of a Doped Fiber |
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336 | (3) |
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18.7 Different Effective Gain Cross Sections |
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339 | (2) |
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18.8 Absorption and Fluorescence Spectra of an Erbium-Doped Fiber |
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341 | (1) |
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18.9 Experimental Studies and Models of Doped Fiber Media |
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342 | (5) |
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344 | (3) |
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347 | (68) |
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19.1 Principle of the Free-Electron Laser |
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348 | (3) |
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19.2 Free-Electron Laser Arrangements |
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351 | (2) |
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19.3 Free-Electron Oscillation: Resonance Frequency and Spontaneously Emitted Radiation |
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353 | (5) |
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19.4 Data of a Free-Electron Laser |
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358 | (2) |
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19.5 Rigid Coupling of Transverse and Longitudinal Oscillation of an Electron |
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360 | (2) |
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19.6 High Frequency Transverse Currents |
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362 | (3) |
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19.7 Modulation Model of the Free-Electron Laser |
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365 | (6) |
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19.8 Saturation Field and Energy of Distortion |
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371 | (2) |
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19.9 Critical Modulation Index |
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373 | (2) |
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19.10 Modulation Model and Data of Free-Electron Lasers |
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375 | (4) |
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19.11 Modulation Model and SASE Free-Electron Lasers |
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379 | (2) |
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19.12 Onset of Oscillation of a Free-Electron Laser |
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381 | (3) |
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19.13 Phase Between Electron Oscillation and Optical Field |
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384 | (3) |
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19.14 Optical Constants of a Free-Electron Laser Medium |
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387 | (1) |
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19.15 Mode Locked Free-Electron Laser |
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388 | (2) |
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390 | (1) |
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19.17 Energy-Level Description of a Free-Electron Laser Medium |
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391 | (7) |
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19.18 Aspects of Free-Electron Laser Theory |
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398 | (3) |
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19.19 Comparison of a Free-Electron Laser with a Conventional Laser |
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401 | (4) |
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19.20 Remark About the History of the Free-Electron Laser |
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405 | (10) |
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406 | (9) |
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Part V Semiconductor Lasers |
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20 An Introduction to Semiconductor Lasers |
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415 | (12) |
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20.1 Energy Bands of Semiconductors |
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416 | (2) |
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20.2 Low-Dimensional Semiconductors |
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418 | (1) |
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20.3 An Estimate of the Transparency Density |
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419 | (1) |
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20.4 Bipolar and Unipolar Semiconductor Lasers |
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420 | (2) |
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20.5 Edge-Emitting Bipolar Semiconductor Lasers |
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422 | (1) |
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20.6 Survey of Topics Concerning Semiconductor Lasers |
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423 | (1) |
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20.7 Frequency Ranges of Semiconductor Lasers |
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424 | (1) |
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20.8 Energy Band Engineering |
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425 | (1) |
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20.9 Differences Between Semiconductor Lasers and Other Lasers |
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425 | (2) |
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426 | (1) |
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21 Basis of a Bipolar Semiconductor Laser |
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427 | (30) |
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21.1 Principle of a Bipolar Semiconductor Laser |
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428 | (1) |
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21.2 Condition of Gain of Radiation in a Bipolar Semiconductor |
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429 | (4) |
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21.3 Energy Level Broadening |
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433 | (1) |
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21.4 Reduced Density of States |
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434 | (3) |
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21.5 Growth Coefficient and Gain Coefficient of a Bipolar Medium |
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437 | (2) |
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21.6 Spontaneous Emission |
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439 | (1) |
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21.7 Laser Equations of a Bipolar Semiconductor Laser |
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440 | (3) |
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21.8 Gain Mediated by a Quantum Well |
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443 | (5) |
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21.9 Laser Equations of a Quantum Well Laser |
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448 | (2) |
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21.10 What Is Meant by "Bipolar"? |
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450 | (7) |
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453 | (4) |
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22 GaAs Quantum Well Laser |
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457 | (18) |
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458 | (1) |
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22.2 An Active Quantum Well |
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459 | (7) |
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22.3 GaAs Quantum Well Laser |
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466 | (3) |
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22.4 Threshold Current of a GaAs Quantum Well Laser |
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469 | (2) |
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22.5 Multi-Quantum Well Laser |
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471 | (1) |
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22.6 High-Power Semiconductor Laser |
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471 | (1) |
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22.7 Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser |
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472 | (1) |
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22.8 Polarization of Radiation of a Quantum Well Laser |
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473 | (1) |
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22.9 Luminescence Radiation from a Quantum Well |
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473 | (2) |
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474 | (1) |
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23 Semiconductor Materials and Heterostructures |
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475 | (10) |
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23.1 Group III--V and Group II--VI Semiconductors |
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475 | (2) |
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23.2 GaAlAs Mixed Crystal |
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477 | (1) |
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23.3 GaAs Crystal and Monolayer |
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478 | (1) |
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23.4 GaAs/GaAlAs Heterostructure |
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478 | (1) |
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23.5 Preparation of Heterostructures |
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479 | (1) |
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23.6 Preparation of Laser Diodes |
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480 | (1) |
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23.7 Material Limitations |
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480 | (1) |
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23.8 Energy Bands and Absorption Coefficients of GaAs and AlAs |
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481 | (4) |
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482 | (3) |
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24 Quantum Well Lasers from the UV to the Infrared |
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485 | (6) |
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485 | (1) |
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24.2 Red and Infrared Laser Diodes |
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485 | (2) |
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24.3 Blue and UV Laser Diodes |
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487 | (1) |
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24.4 Group II--VI Materials of Green Lasers |
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488 | (1) |
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24.5 Applications of Semiconductor Lasers |
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489 | (2) |
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490 | (1) |
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25 Reflectors of Quantum Well Lasers and of Other Lasers |
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491 | (20) |
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491 | (1) |
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492 | (1) |
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493 | (1) |
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25.4 Distributed Feedback Reflector |
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493 | (1) |
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25.5 Distributed Bragg Reflector |
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493 | (1) |
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493 | (1) |
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494 | (1) |
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495 | (1) |
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25.9 Photonic Crystal Fiber |
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496 | (1) |
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25.10 Remark About Photonic Crystals |
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497 | (1) |
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25.11 Plane-Wave Transfer Matrix Method Characterizing an Optical Interface |
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497 | (2) |
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25.12 Thin Film Between Two Media |
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499 | (1) |
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25.13 Dielectric Multilayer |
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500 | (1) |
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25.14 One-Dimensional Photonic Crystal |
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501 | (4) |
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25.15 Bragg Reflection as Origin of Energy Gaps |
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505 | (6) |
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506 | (5) |
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26 More About the Quantum Well Laser |
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511 | (10) |
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511 | (4) |
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515 | (1) |
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26.3 Modification of the Gain Characteristic by Light Holes |
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516 | (1) |
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26.4 Gap Energy of a Quantum Well |
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517 | (1) |
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26.5 Temperature Dependence of the Threshold Current Density of a GaAs Quantum Well Laser |
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517 | (1) |
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26.6 Gain Mediated by a Quantum Well with Inhomogeneous Well Thickness |
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517 | (1) |
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26.7 Tunability of a Quantum Well Laser |
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518 | (1) |
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26.8 Anisotropy of a Quantum Well |
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518 | (3) |
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518 | (3) |
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27 Quantum Wire and Quantum Dot Laser |
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521 | (12) |
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521 | (1) |
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522 | (3) |
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27.3 Gain Mediated by a Quantum Wire |
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525 | (1) |
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27.4 Multi Quantum Wire Laser |
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526 | (2) |
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528 | (1) |
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529 | (2) |
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27.7 One-Quantum Dot Laser |
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531 | (2) |
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532 | (1) |
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28 A Comparison of Semiconductor Lasers |
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533 | (12) |
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28.1 Gain of Radiation in a Bulk Semiconductor |
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534 | (2) |
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28.2 Double Heterostructure Laser |
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536 | (1) |
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537 | (1) |
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28.4 Junction Lasers in the Infrared |
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538 | (1) |
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28.5 Bipolar Semiconductor Lasers: A Comparison |
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538 | (2) |
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28.6 Development of Semiconductor Lasers |
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540 | (2) |
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542 | (3) |
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543 | (2) |
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545 | (8) |
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29.1 Principle of the Quantum Cascade Laser |
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546 | (1) |
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29.2 Infrared Quantum Cascade Laser |
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547 | (1) |
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29.3 Semiconductor Superlattice and Minibands |
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548 | (1) |
|
29.4 Transport in a Superlattice |
|
|
549 | (1) |
|
29.5 Far Infrared Quantum Cascade Laser |
|
|
550 | (3) |
|
|
550 | (3) |
|
30 Electron Waves in Semiconductor Heterostructures |
|
|
553 | (14) |
|
30.1 Electron in a One-Dimensional Square Well Potential |
|
|
553 | (3) |
|
30.2 Energy Bands of Electrons in a Periodic Square Well Potential |
|
|
556 | (3) |
|
30.3 Plane-Wave Transfer Matrix Method of Characterizing a Semiconductor Interface |
|
|
559 | (2) |
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|
561 | (3) |
|
|
564 | (1) |
|
|
564 | (3) |
|
|
564 | (3) |
|
31 A Comparison of Laser Oscillators and Quasiclassical Solid State Oscillators |
|
|
567 | (24) |
|
31.1 Interaction of Radiation with an Active Medium of a Laser or a Quasiclassical Oscillator |
|
|
568 | (1) |
|
31.2 Solid State Oscillators |
|
|
569 | (1) |
|
31.3 Semiconductor Superlattice Oscillator |
|
|
570 | (2) |
|
31.4 Model of a Solid State Oscillator |
|
|
572 | (4) |
|
31.5 Dynamics of Gain Mediated by a Semiconductor Superlattice |
|
|
576 | (5) |
|
31.6 Balance of Energy in a Superlattice Oscillator |
|
|
581 | (2) |
|
31.7 Resonant-Tunneling Diode Oscillator |
|
|
583 | (1) |
|
31.8 Van der Pol Oscillator |
|
|
584 | (7) |
|
|
588 | (3) |
|
32 Superlattice Bloch Laser: A Challenge |
|
|
591 | (32) |
|
32.1 Principle of a Superlattice Bloch Laser |
|
|
592 | (4) |
|
|
596 | (3) |
|
32.3 Esaki-Tsu Characteristic |
|
|
599 | (2) |
|
32.4 Modulation Model of a Bloch Laser |
|
|
601 | (5) |
|
32.5 Saturation Field of a Bloch Laser |
|
|
606 | (3) |
|
32.6 Energy of Distortion in a Bloch Laser |
|
|
609 | (1) |
|
32.7 Synchronization of Bloch Oscillations to a High Frequency Field |
|
|
610 | (2) |
|
32.8 Energy-Level Description of the Superlattice Bloch Laser |
|
|
612 | (5) |
|
32.9 Possible Arrangements of a Bloch Laser |
|
|
617 | (1) |
|
32.10 References to the Bloch Laser and Discussion |
|
|
618 | (5) |
|
|
619 | (4) |
|
Part VI Laser Related Topics |
|
|
|
33 Optical Communications |
|
|
623 | (6) |
|
33.1 Principle of Optical Communications |
|
|
623 | (1) |
|
|
624 | (1) |
|
33.3 Pulse Distortion Due to Dispersion |
|
|
625 | (1) |
|
33.4 Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier |
|
|
626 | (1) |
|
|
627 | (1) |
|
|
627 | (2) |
|
|
628 | (1) |
|
34 Light Emitting Diode and Organic Laser |
|
|
629 | (6) |
|
34.1 LED Preparation and Market |
|
|
629 | (1) |
|
|
630 | (1) |
|
|
631 | (2) |
|
34.4 Organic and Polymer Lasers |
|
|
633 | (2) |
|
|
634 | (1) |
|
|
635 | (10) |
|
35.1 Optics and Nonlinear Optics |
|
|
635 | (1) |
|
35.2 Origin of Nonlinear Polarization |
|
|
636 | (1) |
|
35.3 Optical Frequency Doubler |
|
|
637 | (1) |
|
35.4 Difference Frequency Generator |
|
|
638 | (1) |
|
35.5 Optical Parametric Oscillator |
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
35.6 Third-Order Polarization |
|
|
640 | (1) |
|
35.7 Four-Wave Mixing and Optical Frequency Analyzer |
|
|
641 | (2) |
|
35.8 Stimulated Raman Scattering |
|
|
643 | (2) |
|
|
644 | (1) |
Solutions to Selected Problems |
|
645 | (12) |
References |
|
657 | (10) |
Index |
|
667 | |