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E-grāmata: Casting Powders Book

Kenneth C. Mills, Carl-Åke Däcker

Formāts: EPUB+DRM
Izdošanas datums: 06-Jun-2017
Izdevniecība: Springer International Publishing AG
Valoda: eng
ISBN-13: 9783319536163

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Formāts: EPUB+DRM
Izdošanas datums: 06-Jun-2017
Izdevniecība: Springer International Publishing AG
Valoda: eng
ISBN-13: 9783319536163

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This book deals with casting powders and explains how they work and how they are best used to minimise defects in the ninety per-cent of world steel production that is continuously cast. The factors affecting various aspects of powder performance are described and different defects, their causes, and means of avoiding them are considered.Providing the first comprehensive coverage of mould powder properties and uses, the text treats theoretical and practical matters and gives direct advice on problem solving. Drawing on a wealth of scientific and technological research, represented by its extensive references, The Casting Powders Book shows readers how they can design and create mould powders optimised to fulfill the necessary functions of:lubrication of steel shells and reduction of shell-mould friction;absorption of inclusions floating up from the steel;chemical insulation of steel from carbon-rich mould powder;and protection of the steel meniscus from oxidation and therma

l insulation to prevent surface freezing. Thermophysical properties and heat-transfer processes are also given detailed attention and case studies illustrate the methods and materials described.The Casting Powders Book is designed to be a periodic reference that can be dipped into as the need arises. Readers from different backgrounds are well-served by the depth and variety of content:engineers trouble-shooting a continuous-casting process interested in how mould fluxes can minimise defects and process problems and how their performance is in turn affected by casting parameters;academic scientists interested in the the theoretical aspects and properties of mould fluxes and slag films; orengineers working with ingot casting processes; and many others will find this book an invaluable resource.

1. Introduction and Overview.- 2. Slag Infiltration, Lubrication and Frictional Forces.- 3. Heat Transfer in the Mould and Shell Solidification.- 4. How to Manipulate Slag Behaviour in the Mould.- 5. Effect of Casting Variables on Mould Flux Performance.- 6. Different Types of Mould Powders.- 7. Fluxes for Ingot Casting.- 8. Manufacture of Mould Fluxes.- 9. Properties of Mould Fluxes and Slag Films.- 10. Selection of Mould Fluxes and Special Mould Fluxes for Continuous Casting.- 11. Using Mould Fluxes to Minimise Defects and Process Problems.

1 Introduction and Overview

(18)

1.1 Introduction

(1)

1.2 The Continuous Casting Process for Steel

(2)

1.3 The Introduction of Casting Powders

(2)

1.4 Mould Powder Behaviour in the Mould

(1)

1.5 Slag Film and Slag Rim Characteristics

(3)

1.5.1 Slag Film

(2)

1.5.2 Slag Rim

(1)

1.6 Casting Conditions

(3)

1.6.1 Casting Speed (Vc)

(1)

1.6.2 Metal Flow

(1)

1.6.3 Mould Dimensions

(1)

1.6.4 Oscillation Characteristics

(1)

1.6.5 Steel Grade

(1)

1.6.6 Ar Flow Rate

(1)

1.7 Physical Properties of Mould Slags

(1)

1.8 Fluctuations in the Process

(1)

1.9 Definitions

(2)

1.9.1 Powders, Slags, Fluxes

(1)

1.9.2 Powder Consumption Terms

(1)

1.9.3 Temperature

(1)

1.9.4 Viscosity

(1)

References

(3)

2 Slag Infiltration, Lubrication and Frictional Forces

(40)

2.1 Introduction

(1)

2.2 Powder Consumption (Q)

(20)

2.2.1 Various Powder Consumption Terms

(1)

2.2.2 Measurement of Powder Consumption

(1)

2.2.3 Methods Used to Understand Slag Infiltration Mechanisms

(7)

2.2.4 Problems Arising from Poor Powder Consumption

(1)

2.2.5 Optimum Casting Conditions

(2)

2.2.6 Factors Affecting Powder Consumption

(9)

2.3 Slag Infiltration During the Oscillation Cycle

(3)

2.4 Empirical Equations for Calculating Powder Consumption

(10)

2.4.1 Frictional Forces

(3)

2.4.2 Factors Affecting Frictional Forces in the Mould

(6)

2.5 Summary

(1)

References

(4)

3 Heat Transfer in the Mould and Shell Solidification

(50)

3.1 Introduction

(3)

3.1.1 Heat Flux

(1)

3.2 Horizontal Heat Flux

(22)

3.2.1 Heat Transfer Mechanisms Involved in Horizontal Heat Transfer

(2)

3.2.2 Interfacial Thermal Resistance (Rcu/si)

(6)

3.2.3 Factors Affecting the Horizontal Heat Flux

(9)

3.2.4 Measurement and Calculation of Heat Fluxes

(5)

3.3 Shell Solidification and Growth

(2)

3.4 Variability in Heat Flux

(9)

3.4.1 Variations in Heat Flux (QHor) During the scillation Cycle

(1)

3.4.2 Thermal Gradient Variations Arising from Metal Flow and Other Causes

(3)

3.4.3 Mould Level Variations

(1)

3.4.4 Carbon Content of Steel

(2)

3.4.5 Thermal Gradients in the Mould

(1)

3.4.6 Fracture of Slag Films

(1)

3.5 Vertical Heat Flux

(6)

3.5.1 Heat Transfer Mechanisms Involved in Vertical Heat Transfer

(1)

3.5.2 Factors Affecting Vertical Heat Transfer

(5)

3.6 Summary

102

(1)

References

103

(6)

4 How to Manipulate Slag Behaviour in the Mould

109

(38)

4.1 Introduction

110

(1)

4.2 Vertical Heat Flux and Thermal Insulation of Bed

111

(5)

4.2.1 Vertical Heat Flux

111

(3)

4.2.2 Thermal Insulation of the Bed

114

(2)

4.2.3 Measurements of Thermal Insulation of Powders

116

(1)

4.2.4 Ways of Improving the Thermal Insulation of the Bed

116

(1)

4.3 Melting Rate of the Powder (mr)

116

(4)

4.3.1 The Effect of Mould Powder Properties on Melting Rate

118

(1)

4.3.2 The Effect of Casting Conditions on Melting Rate

119

(1)

4.3.3 Ways of Increasing Melting Rate

119

(1)

4.4 Depth of Molten Slag Pool

120

(5)

4.4.1 Molten Slag Pool

120

(2)

4.4.2 Importance of Depth of Molten Slag Pool

122

(1)

4.4.3 Factors Affecting Slag Pool Depth

122

(2)

4.4.4 The Effect of Casting Speed and Oscillation Characteristics

124

(1)

4.4.5 The Effect of Thermal Insulation of Bed on Pool Depth

125

(1)

4.4.6 Ways of Increasing the Melting Rate

125

(1)

4.5 Powder Consumption (Q) and Liquid Film Thickness (d{)

125

(6)

4.5.1 Reasons for Controlling Powder Consumption

126

(1)

4.5.2 Factors Affecting Powder Consumption

127

(4)

4.5.3 Ways of Controlling the Powder Consumption

131

(1)

4.6 Solid Slag Film and Horizontal Heat Flux

131

(4)

4.6.1 Reasons for Control of Slag Film Thickness and Horizontal Heat Flux

132

(1)

4.6.2 Factors Affecting of Slag Film Thickness and Horizontal Heat Flux

132

(3)

4.6.3 Measurement of Horizontal Heat Flux

135

(1)

4.7 Crystallinity in Slag Film

135

(4)

4.7.1 Importance of Crystallinity to the Casting Process

136

(1)

4.7.2 Factors Affecting

137

(2)

4.7.3 Ways of Increasing Crystallinity in Slag Film

139

(1)

4.8 Delaying Solidification and Shortening the Length of Shell

139

(3)

4.8.1 Factors Affecting Shell Length

140

(1)

4.8.2 Ways of Controlling the Length of Meniscus/Shell

140

(2)

4.9 Summary

142

(1)

References

142

(5)

5 Effect of Casting Variables on Mould Flux Performance

147

(30)

5.1 Introduction

148

(1)

5.2 Mould Characteristics

148

(2)

5.2.1 Mould Dimensions

148

(2)

5.2.2 Mould Length (Lmould)

150

(1)

5.2.3 Mould Taper (Lmould)

150

(1)

5.2.4 Mould Coatings

150

(1)

5.3 Casting Speed (Vc)

150

(3)

5.3.1 Effect of Casting Speed on Powder Consumption

151

(1)

5.3.2 Effect of Casting Speed on Heat Transfer

151

(1)

5.3.3 Effect of Casting Speed on Metal Row Turbulence

152

(1)

5.3.4 Effect of Casting Speed on Negative Strip Time

152

(1)

5.4 Oscillation Characteristics

153

(3)

5.4.1 Effect of Oscillation Characteristics on Powder Consumption

154

(1)

5.4.2 Effect of Oscillation Characteristics on Heat Flux

155

(1)

5.4.3 Effect of Oscillation Characteristics on Oscillation Mark Depth (DOM)

156

(1)

5.5 Mould-Level Control

156

(2)

5.6 Metal How

158

(2)

5.7 Fluctuations in Processes

160

(2)

5.8 Application of Electromagnetic Devices

162

(4)

5.8.1 Electromagnetic Stirring (EMS)

162

(1)

5.8.2 Level Magnetic Field (LMF)

163

(1)

5.8.3 Electromagnetic Casting (EMC)

164

(1)

5.8.4 Electromagnetic Braking (EMBr)

165

(1)

5.9 Steel Grade

166

(5)

5.9.1 Peritectic Steels

166

(4)

5.9.2 High-Al Steels

170

(1)

5.10 Water Flow Rate

171

(1)

5.11 Argon Flow Rate

172

(1)

References

172

(5)

6 Different Types of Mould Powders

177

(46)

6.1 Introduction

178

(8)

6.1.1 Functions Carried Out by Mould Powder

179

(1)

6.1.2 Criteria Affecting Selection of Mould Powders

180

(6)

6.2 Selection of Mould Fluxes

186

(32)

6.2.1 Conventional Mould Powders

187

(7)

6.2.2 Pre-melted Fluxes

194

(1)

6.2.3 Starter Powders

195

(1)

6.2.4 Exothermic Fluxes

196

(2)

6.2.5 Fluoride-Free Powders

198

(7)

6.2.6 Reduced F-Powders

205

(1)

6.2.7 C-Free Powders

205

(1)

6.2.8 Powders for High-Speed Casting and Thin Slab Casting

206

(2)

6.2.9 Powders for Casting Round Billets

208

(1)

6.2.10 Powders for Casting Beam Blanks

208

(1)

6.2.11 Non-Newtonian Powders

209

(1)

6.2.12 Powders for Casting TRIP and TWIP Steels

210

(7)

6.2.13 Powders for Casting Stainless Steels

217

(1)

6.2.14 Powders for Casting Steels with Rare Earths

218

(1)

6.3 Summary

218

(1)

References

219

(4)

7 Fluxes for Ingot Casting

223

(48)

7.1 The Ingot Casting Process

224

(7)

7.1.1 Classification of Ingot Cast Steels

225

(3)

7.1.2 Ingot Casting of Killed Steels

228

(3)

7.2 Aspects of Importance for Ingot Casting Quality

231

(14)

7.2.1 Surface Quality

231

(9)

7.2.2 Inner Quality

240

(2)

7.2.3 Macro Segregation (Hot Top Insulation)

242

(3)

7.3 History of the Development of Mould Powders for Ingot Casting (and CC)

245

(8)

7.3.1 Development of Mould Powders for Continuous Casting

250

(1)

7.3.2 Development of Synthetic Mould Powders

251

(1)

7.3.3 Development of Granulated Powders

252

(1)

7.3.4 Today's Situation Regarding Mould Powders for Ingot Casting

253

(1)

7.4 Selection of Mould Powders for Ingot Casting

253

(9)

7.4.1 Important Properties of the Mould Powder

253

(2)

7.4.2 Important Properties of the Mould Powder Slag

255

(3)

7.4.3 Selection of Mould Powders in Regard to Steel Grade

258

(4)

7.5 Application Techniques for Mould Powders

262

(4)

7.6 Use of Mould Powders to Minimise Defects and Process Problems

266

(2)

7.6.1 Laps and Ripple Marks

266

(1)

7.6.2 Entrapped Oxides

266

(1)

7.6.3 Slag Patches

267

(1)

7.6.4 Porosity

267

(1)

7.6.5 Cracks

268

(1)

7.6.6 Bottom-End Defects

268

(1)

References

268

(3)

8 Manufacture of Mould Fluxes

271

(14)

8.1 Introduction

271

(1)

8.2 Raw Materials

272

(4)

8.2.1 Selection of Carbon Additions to Mould Powders

274

(1)

8.2.2 Reactions During Melting and Cooling of Mould Powders

275

(1)

8.3 Manufacturing

276

(4)

8.4 Quality Control at the Manufacturer

280

(1)

8.5 Information Provided by the Manufacturer

280

(2)

8.6 Delivery Control by the Steel Makers

282

(1)

References

283

(2)

9 Properties of Mould Fluxes and Slag Films

285

(108)

9.1 Introduction

287

(1)

9.2 Structure of Slags

287

(12)

9.2.1 Effect of Individual Slag Components on Structure

287

(5)

9.2.2 Parameters to Represent the Structure of Slags

292

(3)

9.2.3 Effect of Cations

295

(2)

9.2.4 Effect of Temperature on Properties

297

(2)

9.3 Crystallisation in Mould Fluxes

299

(16)

9.3.1 Importance of Crystallisation to the Process

299

(1)

9.3.2 Crystalline Phases Formed in Slag Films

300

(3)

9.3.3 Crystallisation Process

303

(2)

9.3.4 Crystallisation Kinetics

305

(3)

9.3.5 Effects of Crystallisation

308

(2)

9.3.6 Methods of Determining Fraction of Crystalline Phase in Slag Films

310

(3)

9.3.7 Tests to Simulate Formed in Slag Film

313

(1)

9.3.8 Empirical Rules to Calculate the Crystal Fraction in Slag Films

313

(1)

9.3.9 Data for fcrys

314

(1)

9.4 Physical Properties of Mould Slags

315

(45)

9.4.1 Thermodynamic Properties and Liquidus Temperatures (Tliq)

315

(3)

9.4.2 Break Temperature (Tbr)

318

(2)

9.4.3 Glass Transition Temperatures (Tg)

320

(1)

9.4.4 Viscosities (η)

321

(6)

9.4.5 Thermal Conductivities

327

(14)

9.4.6 Interfacial Tension (γms1) and Surface Tension (γs)

341

(9)

9.4.7 Density (ρ) and Thermal Expansion Coefficient (α)

350

(4)

9.4.8 Heat Capacity (Cp) and Enthalpy (HT-H298)

354

(6)

9.5 Optical Properties of Mould Slags

360

(3)

9.5.1 Refractive Indices (n) [ 53, 55, 206, 278, 279]

361

(1)

9.5.2 Absorption Coefficients (α) [ 53, 55, 56, 59, 110, 206, 211, 212, 280, 281]

361

(1)

9.5.3 Reflectivity, Transmissivity and Emissivity

362

(1)

9.6 Thermomechanical Properties of Mould Slags

363

(1)

9.6.1 Thermomechanical Tests

363

(1)

9.6.2 Stress Relaxation

364

(1)

9.7 Dissolution of Oxides, Nitrides and Carbides in Mould Slags

364

(8)

9.7.1 Origin of Inclusions

365

(1)

9.7.2 Mechanism of Inclusion Removal

366

(1)

9.7.3 Transport of Inclusions to the Slag/Metal Interface

366

(3)

9.7.4 Transport Through Slag/Metal Interface

369

(1)

9.7.5 Dissolution of Inclusions

370

(2)

9.8 Other Tests Used on Mould Powders

372

(4)

9.8.1 Bulk Density

372

(1)

9.8.2 Flowability

373

(1)

9.8.3 Permeability Index

374

(1)

9.8.4 Thermal Insulation

374

(2)

9.8.5 Measurement of Moisture and Hydrogen

376

(1)

9.9 Comparison of Properties of Powders Used in Ingot--(IC) nd Continuous Casting (CC)

376

(6)

9.9.1 Differences in Properties of Mould Powders Used in CC and IC

377

(2)

9.9.2 Tasks Carried Out by Powders Used in Continuous- and Ingot Casting

379

(1)

9.9.3 Properties and Characteristics of Powders Used in Continuous and Ingot Casting

379

(1)

9.9.4 Conclusions from Comparison of CC and IC Mould Powders

379

(3)

9.10 Summary

382

(1)

References

383

(10)

10 Selection of Mould Fluxes and Special Mould Fluxes for Continuous Casting

393

(24)

10.1 Introduction

394

(1)

10.2 Selection of Mineral Compositions of Mould Powder for Given Casting Conditions

395

(10)

10.2.1 Effect of Mould Geometry on Mould Powder Selection

396

(2)

10.2.2 Effect of Casting Conditions on Mould Powder Selection

398

(1)

10.2.3 Effect of Steel Grade on Mould Powder Selection

399

(1)

10.2.4 Routines to Differentiate Between Steel Grades

400

(3)

10.2.5 Plots of Tbr as a Function of Slag Viscosity

403

(1)

10.2.6 Other Casting Conditions Affecting Powder Consumption

404

(1)

10.3 Selection of Carbon Components of Mould Powders

405

(1)

10.4 Mould Powder Selection for Special Conditions

406

(7)

10.4.1 Thin-Slab Casting

408

(1)

10.4.2 Round Billets

409

(1)

10.4.3 Mould Powder Selection for Moulds with Large "Corner" Regions

409

(1)

10.4.4 Casting High-Al (Trip, Twip) Steel Grades

410

(1)

10.4.5 Fluoride-Free Powders

411

(1)

10.4.6 Reducing SEN Erosion Rates

412

(1)

10.4.7 Minimising Carbon Pick-up

412

(1)

10.4.8 Minimising Scale Formation

413

(1)

10.5 Summary

413

(1)

References

414

(3)

11 Using Mould Fluxes to Minimise Defects and Process Problems

417

(1)

11.1 Introduction

418

(1)

11.2 Longitudinal Cracking

418

(12)

11.2.1 Type of Steel

419

(2)

11.2.2 Heat Flux

421

(3)

11.2.3 Lubrication and Powder Consumption

424

(1)

11.2.4 Metal Flow, Use of EMBr, EMC and EMS

425

(1)

11.2.5 Causes and Mechanisms

426

(2)

11.2.6 Ways of Dealing with Longitudinal Cracking

428

(2)

11.3 Longitudinal Corner Cracking

430

(4)

11.3.1 Published Information

430

(1)

11.3.2 Causes, Mechanisms

430

(3)

11.3.3 Ways of Dealing with Longitudinal Comer Cracking

433

(1)

11.4 Sticker Breakouts

434

(12)

11.4.1 Factors Affecting Sticker Breakouts

435

(7)

11.4.2 Causes, Mechanisms

442

(1)

11.4.3 Ways of Dealing with Sticker Breakout

443

(3)

11.5 Oscillation Marks (OM's)

446

(15)

11.5.1 Characteristics of Oscillation Marks

446

(2)

11.5.2 Mould Oscillation

448

(1)

11.5.3 Factors Affecting Depth of OM's (DOM)

449

(7)

11.5.4 Causes, Mechanisms

456

(3)

11.5.5 Ways of Dealing with Deep OMs

459

(2)

11.6 Transverse and Comer Cracking

461

(8)

11.6.1 Factors Affecting Transverse Cracking

463

(4)

11.6.2 Ways of Dealing with Transverse and Comer Cracking

467

(2)

11.7 Star Cracking

469

(2)

11.7.1 Factors Affecting Star Cracking

469

(2)

11.7.2 Ways of Dealing with Star Cracking

471

(1)

11.8 Depressions

471

(8)

11.8.1 Longitudinal Depressions

471

(5)

11.8.2 Transverse Depressions

476

(1)

11.8.3 Off-Comer Depressions

477

(2)

11.9 Overflows

479

(1)

11.9.1 Factors Affecting Overflows

479

(1)

11.9.2 Causes, Mechanisms

480

(1)

11.9.3 Ways of Dealing with C-Type Effects

480

(1)

11.10 Slag, Gas Entrapment and Sliver Formation

480

(31)

11.10.1 Metal Flow Conditions Leading to Entrapment

481

(12)

11.10.2 Slag Entrapment

493

(7)

11.10.3 Gas Entrapment

500

(6)

11.10.4 Inclusion Capture, Sliver Formation

506

(5)

11.11 Formation of Scales

511

(4)

11.11.1 Factors Affecting Scale Formation

512

(2)

11.11.2 Causes, Mechanisms

514

(1)

11.11.3 Ways of Dealing with Scaling

514

(1)

11.12 Carbon Pick-up

515

(3)

11.12.1 Factors Affecting Carbon Pick-up

515

(1)

11.12.2 Causes, Mechanisms

516

(1)

11.12.3 Ways of Dealing with Carbon Pick-up

517

(1)

11.13 SEN Erosion

518

(6)

11.13.1 Factors Affecting SEN Erosion Rates

520

(1)

11.13.2 Causes, Mechanisms

521

(1)

11.13.3 Ways of Dealing with SEN Erosion

522

(2)

11.14 Fluorine Emissions

524

(1)

11.14.1 Factors Affecting Fluoride Emissions

524

(1)

11.14.2 Ways of Dealing with Fluoride Emissions

525

(1)

11.15 Summary

525

(2)

References

527

Correction to: The Casting Powders Book

Ken Mills worked at the National Physical Laboratory, Teddington from 1963-1999 and has been in the Department of Materials, Imperial College from 1995-present. His primary interest at NPL was in the measurement of the physical properties of materials involved in high temperature processes (metals, slags and refractories). He has been working on mould powders for continuous casting for more than 35 years and formed the UK Working Group on Casting Powders and was a member of the Europ. Coal & Steel Committee on Theoretical Steelmaking for more than 10years. During his time at NPL he became interested in the factors affecting the continuous casting process and the mechanisms responsible for process problems and defects. His interest in this area has led to the awards of the Bessemer Gold Medal (2013) and Honorary Membership of the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan (2003). At Imperial College he lectured in Process Metallurgy and in Heat and Fluid flow. His research at ImperialCollege has been largely focused on continuous casting with research on i. the properties and performance of continuous casting slags ii. mathematical modelling of the process. However, other steelmaking related projects were also carried out. In recent years he has revived his interest in the estimation of physical models of slags and metals (for use in the macro model) from their chemical composition. He has published three books, more than 200 journal papers and has contributed in chapters to several books. He is the most cited author in this field of mould powders. Carl-Åke Däcker, now working as Senior Scientific Advisor previously being Manager of the Materials& Process Development Department at Swerea KIMAB. In his work at the Institute he has dedicated most of his own research on mould powder development in close co-operation with the Swedish steelmakers and published around 10 conference papers in this field. In 2012 he was awarded Professor Hasse Fredriksson award for many years research of mould powder properties and its effect on continuous cast blanks surface quality. Before joining the Institute he worked 24 years with research, in the Swedish industry. 12 years at the Metallurgical Department at SSAB in Oxelösund where casting was an important issue, 7 years at Rockwool AB where he worked with raw-materials and melting of Rockwool glass.

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