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In use as a medicinal plant since time immemorial in Europe and the Middle East, chamomile is gaining popularity in the Americas, Australia, and Asia. The spectrum of disease conditions in which it is used in traditional medicine systems is, quite simply, mind boggling. There is, without a doubt, a growing demand for this plant and therefore a growing need for an updated ready reference for the researchers, cultivators, and entrepreneurs who wish to work with chamomile. Chamomile: Medicinal, Biochemical, and Agricultural Aspects is just that.





Based on extensive research, this book provides the latest information on the medicinal, aromatic, and cultivation aspects of chamomile. It covers chamomiles geographical distribution, taxonomy, chemistry, pharmacology, genetics, biochemistry, breeding, and cultivation. The book also discusses the profiles of the several medicinally active compounds of the oil and extracts and how their levels could be increased through breeding.





The author highlights several potentially useful compounds discovered in the chamomile oil and extracts and discusses the cultivation and postharvest technology aspects of the plant in different agroclimatic zones including that of India. She presents guidelines on the good manufacturing practices laid out in different systems of medicine and provides an overview of the patents and products of chamomile especially important to researchers and entrepreneurs.





Although there is a plethora of information available on chamomile, the challenge has been finding a central repository that covers all aspects of the plant. Some books provide general coverage, others focus on only on pharmacological uses, and many are outdated. This book examines all aspects from cultivation and harvesting, to essential oil content and profile as well as pharmacology and biotechnology. It is a reference for current information, an entry point for further study, a resource for using oils and extr
Series Preface xv
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xix
Author xxi
Chapter 1 Introduction to Chamomile
1(48)
1.1 Introduction
1(2)
1.2 Chamomile as Food
3(1)
1.3 Chamomile as a Cosmetic Ingredient
4(1)
1.4 Other Uses of Chamomile
4(1)
1.5 Medicinal Uses of Chamomile
4(45)
1.5.1 Use of Chamomile in the Traditional System of Medicine
5(1)
1.5.1.1 Preparation of Tea
5(1)
1.5.1.2 Preparation of Tincture and Extract
5(1)
1.5.1.3 Essential Oil
5(2)
1.5.1.4 Disease Conditions in Which Chamomile Is Used
7(3)
1.5.1.5 Herbal Formulations of Chamomile
10(1)
1.5.1.6 Pharmacopoeias and Monographs
10(6)
1.5.1.7 Quality, Safety, and Efficacy Issues of Chamomile Herbal Formulations
16(2)
1.5.1.8 Methods to Ensure Quality, Safety, and Efficacy of Chamomile Drugs
18(2)
1.5.1.9 Good Manufacturing Practices for Herbal Formulations per World Health Organization Guidelines
20(1)
1.5.1.10 National Regulations for Herbal Formulations
21(2)
1.5.2 Homeopathy
23(1)
1.5.2.1 Disease Conditions
24(1)
1.5.2.2 Formulations in Homeopathy
25(1)
1.5.2.3 Homeopathic Pharmacopoeia
26(2)
1.5.2.4 Quality Issues of Chamomile Homeopathic Formulations
28(1)
1.5.2.5 Methods to Improve Quality, Safety, and Efficacy of Homeopathic Drugs
29(1)
1.5.2.6 Guidelines for Quality, Safety, and Efficacy of Homeopathic Drugs
30(2)
1.5.2.7 National Regulations on Homeopathy System of Medicine
32(3)
1.5.3 Unani System of Medicine
35(1)
1.5.3.1 Disease Conditions
35(1)
1.5.3.2 Formulations of Chamomile
35(3)
1.5.3.3 Unani Pharmacopoeia
38(1)
1.5.3.4 Quality Issues of Unani Formulations
39(1)
1.5.3.5 Quality Control of Unani Formulations
39(2)
1.5.3.6 National Legislation in India
41(1)
References
42(7)
Chapter 2 Chamomile: Botany
49(7)
2.1 Introduction
49(1)
2.2 Common Names
49(1)
2.3 Occurrence
49(1)
2.4 Botanical Classification and Nomenclature of Chamomile
50(6)
2.4.1 Linnaeus on Chamomile
52(2)
2.4.1.1 Hortus Cliffortianus
54(1)
2.4.1.2 Flora Suecica (First Edition)
55(1)
2.4.1.3 Species Plantarum (First Edition)
55(1)
2 AAA Flora Suecica (Second Edition)
56(43)
2.4.1.5 Species Plantarum (Second Edition)
57(1)
2.4.1.6 Differences in Classification
57(1)
2.4.1.7 English Translation of Linnaeus's Work
57(1)
2.4.2 Nomenclature
58(1)
2.4.3 Flora Europea
59(1)
2.4.4 Flora of Great Britain and Ireland
60(1)
2.4.5 Taxonomic Key
60(1)
2.4.6 Classification Based on New Taxonomic Tools
61(1)
2.5 Anatomical Characteristics of Chamomile
61(3)
2.5.1 Stem
61(1)
2.5.2 Leaf
62(1)
2.5.3 Peduncle
63(1)
2.5.4 Inflorescence or Capitulum
63(1)
2.5.5 Roots
63(1)
2.6 Reproductive Biology
64(1)
2.6.1 Stages of Flowering
64(1)
2.7 Cytology and Ploidy Effects
64(2)
2.8 Physiology
66(12)
2.8.1 Germination of Chamomile Seeds
67(1)
2.8.2 Effect of Light
67(1)
2.8.3 Effect of Temperature
67(1)
2.8.4 Effect of Photoperiod and Diurnal Rhythms of Secondary Metabolites
68(1)
2.8.5 Effect of Nitrogen, Potassium, and Phosphorus
68(1)
2.8.6 Effect of Calcium, Sulfur, and Magnesium
68(1)
2.8.7 Effect of Indole Acetic Acid, Gibberellin, Kinetin, and Other Growth Regulators
69(1)
2.8.8 Water Stress
70(1)
2.8.9 Salt Stress
70(2)
2.8.10 Heat Stress
72(1)
2.8.11 Toxic Metals
72(2)
2.8.12 Effect of Inorganic and Organic Fertilizers and Mycorrhiza
74(1)
2.8.13 Effect of Weedicide
75(1)
2.8.14 Biotic Stress
75(1)
2.8.15 Effect of Biopesticides
75(3)
2.9 Biochemistry
78(2)
2.9.1 Enzymes
78(1)
2.9.2 Polysaccharides and Pectic Acid
79(1)
2.9.3 Chamazulene Synthesis
79(1)
2.9.4 Biosynthesis of Other Sesquiterpenes
79(1)
2.9.5 Biosynthesis of Coumarins
80(1)
2.10 Descriptors of Chamomile
80(19)
2.10.1 Need of Descriptors
80(1)
2.10.2 Definition and Types of Descriptor
80(1)
2.10.3 Chamomile Descriptors: Morphology, Yield of Flower and Oil, and Chemical Constituents of Oil
81(8)
References
89(10)
Chapter 3 Chamomile: Medicinal Properties
99(56)
3.1 Introduction
99(1)
3.2 Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Chamomile
100(11)
3.2.1 Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Chamomile Extract
101(1)
3.2.2 Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Chamazulene
102(1)
3.2.3 Anti-Inflammatory Effect of (-)-α-Bisabolol
103(1)
3.2.4 And-Inflammatory Effect of Trans-En-Yn-Dicycloether
104(1)
3.2.5 Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Flavonoids
104(2)
3.2.5.1 Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Apigenin
106(1)
3.2.5.2 Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Quercetin
106(3)
3.2.5.3 Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Luteolin
109(2)
3.3 Chamomile as an Antioxidant
111(2)
3.3.1 Antioxidant Property of Chamomile
111(1)
3.3.1.1 Chamazulene
111(1)
3.3.1.2 (-)-α-Bisabolol
112(1)
3.3.1.3 Chamomile Extract and Essential Oil
112(1)
3.3.1.4 Polysaccharides
113(1)
3.4 Antinociceptive Effect of Chamomile
113(1)
3.4.1 Pain-Relieving Properties of Chamomile
113(1)
3.5 Chamomile and Wound Healing
114(3)
3.5.1 Wound Healing and Ulcer-Protective Property of Chamomile
114(1)
3.5.1.1 Chamomile Extract
114(1)
3.5.1.2 (-)-α-Bisabolol
115(1)
3.5.1.3 Chamomile Oil
116(1)
3.5.1.4 Others
116(1)
3.6 Chamomile as an Immunomodulator
117(1)
3.6.1 Immunomodulating Effect of Chamomile
117(1)
3.7 Antimutagenic Effect of Chamomile
118(1)
3.7.1 Antigenotoxic and Tumoricidal Effect of Chamomile
118(1)
3.8 Anticancer Effect of Chamomile
119(1)
3.8.1 Anticancer Property of Chamomile
119(1)
3.9 Chamomile for Treating Insomnia
120(2)
3.9.1 Chamomile as a Sedative
121(1)
3.10 Chamomile for Relieving Stress
122(1)
3.10.1 Anxiolytic and Stress-Reducing Properties of Chamomile
122(1)
3.11 Neuroprotective Effect of Chamomile
123(1)
3.11.1 Neuroprotective Properties of Chamomile
123(1)
3.12 Effect of Chamomile on Morphine Withdrawal Syndrome
124(1)
3.12.1 Effect of Chamomile Extract on Morphine Dependence and Abstinence
125(1)
3.13 Anxiolytic Effect of Chamomile
125(1)
3.13.1 Anxiolytic Properties of Chamomile
126(1)
3.14 Chamomile as Psychostimulant and Its Effect on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
126(1)
3.14.1 Psychopharmacological Effect of Chamomile
126(1)
3.15 Effect of Chamomile on Some Dermatological Problems
127(1)
3.15.1 Treatment of Dermatological Problems with Chamomile
127(1)
3.16 Phytoestrogenic Effect of Chamomile
128(1)
3.16.1 Chamomile as Phytoestrogen
128(1)
3.17 Chamomile and Cardiovascular Disease
128(1)
3.17.1 Effect of Chamomile on Some Cardiovascular Disease Conditions
129(1)
3.18 Chamomile and Oral Health
129(1)
3.18.1 Effect of Chamomile on Oral Disease Conditions
129(1)
3.19 Treatment of Colicky Infants with Chamomile
130(1)
3.19.1 Effect of Chamomile on Colicky Infants
130(1)
3.20 Spasmolytic Effect of Chamomile
130(1)
3.20.1 Antispasmodic Effects of Chamomile
130(1)
3.21 Hepatoprotective Effect of Chamomile
131(1)
3.21.1 Hepatoprotective Properties of Chamomile
131(1)
3.22 Nephroprotective Effect of Chamomile
132(1)
3.22.1 Effect of Chamomile on Nephrotoxicity
132(1)
3.23 Antileishmania Effect of Chamomile
133(1)
3.23.1 Inhibitory Effect of Chamomile on Leishmania
133(1)
3.24 Antibiotic Effect of Chamomile
133(2)
3.24.1 Antibiotic Effect of Chamomile Extracts
133(1)
3.24.2 Antibiotic Effect of Chamomile Essential Oil
134(1)
3.25 Effect of Chamomile against Anisakiasis
135(1)
3.25.1 Chamomile as a Potential Cure for Anisakiasis
135(1)
3.26 Anticulex Effect of Chamomile
135(1)
3.26.1 Inhibitory Effect of Chamomile against Culex
136(1)
3.27 Chamomile and Pregnancy
136(1)
3.28 Chamomile and Pest Management
136(1)
3.29 Chamomile Use in Poultry and Animal Husbandry
136(1)
3.30 Chamomile as Veterinary Medicine
137(1)
3.31 Toxicity and Allergenicity of Chamomile Compounds
138(1)
3.32 Pharmacokinetic Studies and In Vivo Skin Penetrations of Chamomile Compounds
139(16)
References
139(16)
Chapter 4 Chamomile Oil and Extract: Localization, Chemical Composition, Extraction, and Identification
155(54)
4.1 Introduction
155(1)
4.2 Localization and Content of the Chamomile Essential Oil
156(3)
4.2.1 Essential Oil Content in Flowers
156(1)
4.2.1.1 Variation in Essential Oil Content in Different Locations
157(1)
4.2.1.2 Variation in Essential Oil Content in Different Stages of Flowering
157(1)
4.2.1.3 Variation in Essential Oil Content Due to Farming Practices
157(1)
4.2.1.4 Variation in Composition of Organ-Specific Essential Oil
158(1)
4.3 Discovery of the Compounds in the Essential Oil
159(1)
4.4 Chemical Composition of the Flower Essential Oil
160(13)
4.4.1 Major Compounds
163(1)
4.4.1.1 Chamazulene and Its Precursors
163(1)
4.4.1.2 Bisabolols and Bisabolol Oxides
164(1)
4.4.1.3 (E)-β-Farnesene
165(1)
4.4.1.4 Spiroethers
165(1)
4.4.2 Minor Compounds
166(1)
4.4.2.1 Germacrene D
166(1)
4.4.2.2 (E)-Nerolidol
166(1)
4.4.2.3 Farnesol
166(1)
4.4.2.4 Spathulenol
167(1)
4.4.2.5 n-Hexanol
167(1)
4.4.2.6 Isoborneol
168(1)
4.4.2.7 Nerol
168(1)
4.4.2.8 Phytol
168(1)
4.4.2.9 Limonene
169(1)
4.4.2.10 Camphene
169(1)
4.4.2.11 α-Terpineol
170(1)
4.4.2.12 Chamomillol
170(1)
4.4.2.13 β-Elemene
170(1)
4.4.2.14 α-Humulene
171(1)
4.4.2.15 Hexadec-11-yn-13, 15-diene
171(1)
4.4.2.16 β-Bourbonene
172(1)
4.4.2.17 τ-Cadinol
172(1)
4.5 Physical Properties of the Flower Essential Oil
173(1)
4.6 Chemical Composition of the Herb Essential Oil (Stem and Leaves)
173(1)
4.7 Chemical Composition of the Root Essential Oil
173(1)
4.8 Comparative Account of the Essential Oils of Various Parts of Chamomile Plant
174(1)
4.9 Chemical Composition of Chamomile Flower Extract
174(16)
4.9.1 Major Compounds
185(1)
4.9.1.1 Apigenin
185(1)
4.9.1.2 Luteolin
185(1)
4.9.1.3 Quercetin
185(1)
4.9.1.4 Herniarin
185(4)
4.9.1.5 Umbelliferone
189(1)
4.9.2 Other Compounds
190(1)
4.9.2.1 Polysaccharides
190(1)
4.9.2.2 Lipidic and Ceraceous Substances
190(1)
4.9.2.3 Phenyl Carboxylic Acids
190(1)
4.10 Extraction Methods
190(5)
4.10.1 Infusion
191(1)
4.10.2 Steam Distillation
191(1)
4.10.3 Solvent Extraction
192(1)
4.10.4 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Fluid Extraction
193(1)
4.10.5 Vacuum Headspace
194(1)
4.10.6 Solid-Phase Extraction
194(1)
4.10.7 Solid-Phase Microextraction
195(1)
4.11 Identification Methods of Chemical Compounds in Chamomile Oil and Extract
195(14)
4.11.1 Thin-Layer Chromatography
195(1)
4.11.2 Thin-Layer Chromatography-Ultra Violet Spectrometry
196(1)
4.11.3 Spectrocolorimeter
196(1)
4.11.4 High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography
196(1)
4.11.5 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
196(1)
4.11.6 Overpressured-Layer Chromatography
197(1)
4.11.7 Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography
197(1)
4.11.8 Capillary Electrochromatography
197(1)
4.11.9 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
197(1)
4.11.10 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
198(1)
References
198(11)
Chapter 5 Genetics and Breeding of Chamomile
209(34)
5.1 Introduction
209(1)
5.2 Variability in Chamomile Population
209(11)
5.2.1 Variation in Oil Content
211(1)
5.2.2 Variation in Oil Composition
211(4)
5.2.3 Chemical Types of Chamomile
215(2)
5.2.4 Chemotypes Based on Flower Extract
217(1)
5.2.5 Variability Due to Ontogeny
218(1)
5.2.6 Variability Due to Environmental Conditions
218(2)
5.3 Genetics
220(3)
5.3.1 Genetics of Chamazulene and Bisaboloids
220(1)
5.3.2 Molecular Techniques to Detect Genetic Variation in Chamomile
221(1)
5.3.3 Patents on Cloned Genes
222(1)
5.4 Breeding
223(4)
5.5 Comparative Account of Tetraploid and Diploid Varieties of Chamomile
227(3)
5.5.1 Morphological Characters
227(1)
5.5.2 Determination of Ploidy Levels
228(1)
5.5.3 Compounds in the Essential Oil
229(1)
5.5.4 Compounds in the Extract
230(1)
5.6 Biometrics
230(2)
5.7 Micropropagation of Chamomile
232(11)
5.7.1 Essential Oil in Cultures
232(1)
5.7.2 Cryopreservation
233(1)
References
234(9)
Chapter 6 Cultivation of Chamomile
243(26)
6.1 Introduction
243(1)
6.2 Habitat and Climatic Conditions
243(2)
6.3 Soil Conditions
245(1)
6.4 Seeds
246(1)
6.5 Sowing
247(2)
6.5.1 Direct Sowing
248(1)
6.5.2 Indirect Sowing
248(1)
6.5.3 Self-Sowing
248(1)
6.5.4 Field Preparation
249(1)
6.5.5 Germination
249(1)
6.5.6 Transplantation
249(1)
6.6 Fertilization
249(5)
6.6.1 Inorganic Fertilizers
249(2)
6.6.2 Vermicompost
251(1)
6.6.3 Combined Fertilizers
252(1)
6.6.4 Physiological Treatments
253(1)
6.6.5 Vascular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza
253(1)
6.6.6 Rhizobacteria
254(1)
6.7 Irrigation
254(1)
6.8 Weeding
254(2)
6.9 Herbicide Resistance
256(1)
6.10 Pest Control
256(1)
6.11 Harvesting
256(2)
6.12 Yield
258(1)
6.13 Postharvest Treatment
258(3)
6.14 Fitness for Rotation with Other Crops
261(1)
6.15 Hydroponic Culture
261(8)
References
261(8)
Chapter 7 Chamomile: Patents and Products
269(18)
7.1 Chamomile Patents
269(11)
7.1.1 Oral Medicine Containing Chamomile
269(1)
7.1.2 Topical Use of Chamomile
270(3)
7.1.3 Medical Devices
273(1)
7.1.4 Oral Hygiene
274(1)
7.1.5 Diapers
274(1)
7.1.6 Feminine Hygiene
274(1)
7.1.7 Food
275(1)
7.1.7.1 Candies
275(1)
7.1.7.2 Flavoring
275(1)
7.1.8 Beverages
275(2)
7.1.9 Perfume
277(1)
7.1.10 Cosmetics
277(2)
7.1.11 Insecticide
279(1)
7.1.12 Trichomonadicidal
279(1)
7.1.13 Veterinary Medicine
279(1)
7.1.14 Animal Feed Supplement
280(1)
7.1.15 Chamomile Variety
280(1)
7.1.16 Equipment
280(1)
7.2 Chamomile Products
280(7)
References
283(4)
Index 287
Dr. Moumita Das is presently Assistant Director in the National Centre for Innovation in Distance Education at the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU). Earlier she was the Assistant Director at the National Centre for Innovation in Distance Education (NCIDE), IGNOU. She did her graduation and post-graduation from the University of Delhi. For her PhD, she did research at the Central Institute for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP), Lucknow. She was a research fellow at the Institute for Genomics and Integrative Biology, where she worked in the field of drug discovery. Dr. Das has published many papers in journals of national and international repute. Her areas of interest include medicinal plants and sustainable development.
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