Contributors |
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xxiii | |
Preface |
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xxvii | |
Acknowledgments and appreciations |
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xxix | |
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1 | (26) |
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1 | (3) |
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2 Benefits and drawbacks of composting |
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4 | (2) |
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3 Economic benefits of composting |
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6 | (4) |
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3.1 Revenue from processing or "gate" fees |
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6 | (1) |
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6 | (1) |
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7 | (1) |
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3.4 Animal bedding substitute |
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7 | (1) |
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3.5 Destruction of weed seeds, pathogens, and reduced pesticide costs |
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8 | (1) |
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3.6 Reduced disposal costs |
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8 | (1) |
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3.7 Reduced handling costs |
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9 | (1) |
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3.8 Expanded outlets for organic residuals |
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9 | (1) |
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3.9 Improve manure management |
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9 | (1) |
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4 Environmental benefits of composting |
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10 | (6) |
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4.1 Soil health and plant vigor |
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10 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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11 | (1) |
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4.4 Plant disease suppression |
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11 | (1) |
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12 | (1) |
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12 | (1) |
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4.7 Destruction of hormones, antibiotics, and pesticide residues |
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12 | (1) |
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4.8 Treatment of animal mortalities |
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12 | (1) |
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4.9 Low risk of environmental impacts from compost use |
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13 | (1) |
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4.10 Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions |
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13 | (3) |
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16 | (4) |
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16 | (1) |
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17 | (1) |
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17 | (1) |
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18 | (1) |
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5.5 Diversion of manure and crop residues from cropland |
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18 | (1) |
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5.6 Potential loss of nitrogen |
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18 | (1) |
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5.7 Slow release of nutrients |
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19 | (1) |
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5.8 Uncertain availability of nitrogen |
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19 | (1) |
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5.9 Risk of losing farm or nonprofit classification |
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19 | (1) |
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6 Facts and fiction of composting and compost |
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20 | (5) |
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6.1 Composting is an art; composting is a science |
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20 | (1) |
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6.2 Composting is a natural process |
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20 | (1) |
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6.3 Composting is aerobic |
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20 | (1) |
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6.4 Composting does not create odors, when properly done |
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21 | (1) |
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6.5 Composting is thermophilic |
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21 | (1) |
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6.6 Composting is impractical in cold climates |
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21 | (1) |
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6.7 Meats, fats, and oils should not be composted |
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22 | (1) |
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6.8 Compost can be made in a week |
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22 | (1) |
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6.9 Composting and compost are safe and environmentally beneficial |
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22 | (1) |
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6.10 Compost is compost; all composts are created equal |
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22 | (1) |
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6.11 Compost sells itself |
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23 | (1) |
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6.12 Compost suppresses plant diseases |
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23 | (1) |
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6.13 Compost is "organic" |
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23 | (1) |
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6.14 Compost is a fertilizer |
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23 | (1) |
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6.15 Compost contains "heavy metals" |
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24 | (1) |
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6.16 Composting makes nutrients more available to plants |
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24 | (1) |
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24 | (1) |
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25 | (2) |
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Chapter 2 Enterprise planning |
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27 | (24) |
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27 | (1) |
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2 Starting a composting enterprise |
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28 | (4) |
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3 Assessing your resources |
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32 | (1) |
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32 | (3) |
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33 | (1) |
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33 | (1) |
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33 | (1) |
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33 | (2) |
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5 Defining success--start with the end mind |
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35 | (2) |
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35 | (1) |
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36 | (1) |
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6 Scoping out availability of feedstocks and markets for compost |
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37 | (1) |
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7 Determine compost facility regulatory requirements |
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38 | (1) |
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8 Planning human resource needs of a compost enterprise |
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39 | (2) |
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9 Production planning--the business of manufacturing |
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41 | (2) |
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10 Financial strategy--the business of business |
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43 | (3) |
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11 Enterprise planning--case study |
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46 | (2) |
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48 | (3) |
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Chapter 3 The composting process |
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51 | (52) |
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51 | (2) |
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2 What happens during composting? |
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53 | (3) |
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3 Changes in the materials during composting |
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56 | (3) |
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4 Factors affecting the composting process |
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59 | (29) |
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60 | (4) |
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64 | (1) |
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65 | (3) |
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68 | (2) |
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4.5 Nutrient and the carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratio |
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70 | (3) |
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4.6 Physical factors: particle size, structure, porosity, free air space, and permeability |
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73 | (4) |
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77 | (2) |
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79 | (1) |
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80 | (3) |
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83 | (3) |
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86 | (2) |
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88 | (1) |
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89 | (1) |
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7 Composting microbiology |
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90 | (6) |
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95 | (1) |
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95 | (1) |
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96 | (7) |
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Chapter 4 Compost feedstocks |
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103 | (56) |
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103 | (3) |
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106 | (1) |
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3 Feedstock characteristics |
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107 | (4) |
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108 | (1) |
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108 | (1) |
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109 | (1) |
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109 | (1) |
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109 | (1) |
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3.6 Organic matter, volatile solids, and ash |
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110 | (1) |
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110 | (1) |
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111 | (1) |
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111 | (1) |
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111 | (4) |
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4.1 Physical contaminants |
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111 | (2) |
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4.2 Chemical contaminants |
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113 | (2) |
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115 | (1) |
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4.4 Biological contaminants |
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115 | (1) |
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115 | (2) |
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6 Combining feedstocks--amendments and recipes |
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117 | (11) |
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6.1 Approaches to developing recipes |
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118 | (4) |
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6.2 The prominence of moisture and C:N ratio |
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122 | (1) |
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123 | (5) |
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7 Determining feedstock characteristics |
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128 | (4) |
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8 Common feedstocks for composting |
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132 | (20) |
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133 | (2) |
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135 | (1) |
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135 | (1) |
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136 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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8.6 Livestock and poultry manure |
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137 | (2) |
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8.7 Agricultural crop and processing residue |
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139 | (1) |
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8.8 Food processing waste |
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139 | (1) |
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8.9 Fish and seafood processing waste |
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140 | (1) |
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141 | (1) |
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8.11 Compostable plastics |
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141 | (3) |
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8.12 Inorganic and organic extras |
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144 | (8) |
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152 | (7) |
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Chapter 5 Passively aerated composting methods, including turned windrows |
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159 | (38) |
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159 | (4) |
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2 Passively aerated static piles |
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163 | (6) |
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163 | (1) |
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2.2 Pile configuration and size |
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164 | (3) |
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167 | (2) |
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3 Techniques to improved passive aeration--passively aerated windrow system and natural aeration static pile |
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169 | (2) |
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4 Turned windrow composting |
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171 | (22) |
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171 | (3) |
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174 | (3) |
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177 | (4) |
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4.4 Timing and frequency of turning |
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181 | (4) |
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185 | (8) |
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193 | (4) |
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Chapter 6 Forced aeration composting, aerated static pile, and similar methods |
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197 | (74) |
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197 | (2) |
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199 | (52) |
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200 | (4) |
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2.2 Pile configurations and dimensions |
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204 | (4) |
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2.3 Feedstock preparation, pile construction, and turning |
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208 | (3) |
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2.4 Aeration direction--positive versus negative |
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211 | (5) |
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2.5 Aeration system synopsis |
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216 | (4) |
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220 | (5) |
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2.7 Fans and fan pressure |
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225 | (5) |
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230 | (11) |
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241 | (10) |
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3 Variations of aerated static piles |
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251 | (11) |
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252 | (4) |
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256 | (2) |
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3.3 Aerated static pile under microporous covers |
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258 | (4) |
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4 Methods combining turning and forced aeration of windrows and piles |
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262 | (4) |
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4.1 Forced aeration turned windrows |
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262 | (1) |
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4.2 Extended piles (aka. Trapezoidal, block, or table composting) |
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263 | (3) |
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266 | (5) |
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Chapter 7 Contained and in-vessel composting methods and methods summary |
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271 | (36) |
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271 | (3) |
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274 | (2) |
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276 | (5) |
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4 Turned/agitated vessels |
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281 | (6) |
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282 | (3) |
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285 | (2) |
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5 Aerated beds and bays in buildings and halls |
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287 | (1) |
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288 | (2) |
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290 | (4) |
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294 | (2) |
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9 Moveable and modular aerated containers |
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296 | (4) |
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9.1 Modular containers within a composting site |
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296 | (2) |
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9.2 Transportable containers between sites |
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298 | (2) |
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10 Methods for on-site composting of food waste |
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300 | (2) |
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11 Summary: comparing the composting methods |
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302 | (2) |
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304 | (3) |
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Chapter 8 Composting animal mortalities |
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307 | (34) |
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307 | (3) |
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2 Mortality composting--basic principles |
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310 | (1) |
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3 Pathogen elimination, risk management, and regulatory requirements |
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311 | (7) |
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312 | (4) |
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316 | (1) |
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3.3 Regulatory requirements |
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316 | (2) |
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4 Feedstock characteristics and requirements |
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318 | (4) |
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4.1 Carcass characteristics |
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318 | (1) |
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4.2 Amendments--carbon sources--bulking agents |
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319 | (3) |
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322 | (8) |
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5.1 Passively aerated piles and bins |
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322 | (8) |
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6 Sizing guidelines for passively aerated pies and bin |
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330 | (2) |
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7 Other mortality composting methods |
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332 | (3) |
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7.1 Forced-aerated static piles and bins |
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332 | (1) |
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333 | (1) |
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334 | (1) |
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8 Managing mortality composting operations |
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335 | (1) |
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335 | (1) |
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335 | (1) |
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336 | (5) |
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Chapter 9 Composting operations and equipment |
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341 | (68) |
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341 | (1) |
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2 Material handling equipment |
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342 | (11) |
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343 | (3) |
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346 | (1) |
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347 | (1) |
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2.4 Dump trucks, end dumps, and wagons |
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348 | (1) |
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349 | (4) |
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3 Feedstock receiving and handling |
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353 | (9) |
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353 | (1) |
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3.2 Receiving wet feedstocks |
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354 | (1) |
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3.3 Handling liquid feedstocks |
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355 | (2) |
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3.4 Removing contaminants |
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357 | (4) |
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3.5 Temporary storage of feedstocks |
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361 | (1) |
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4 Amendment handling and storage |
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362 | (1) |
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5 Feedstock preprocessing |
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363 | (15) |
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364 | (1) |
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5.2 Size reduction equipment |
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364 | (7) |
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371 | (7) |
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378 | (11) |
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6.1 General pile and windrow formation |
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378 | (3) |
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381 | (1) |
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6.3 Combining piles and windrows |
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381 | (1) |
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6.4 Adding water to windrows and piles |
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382 | (7) |
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389 | (3) |
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392 | (11) |
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392 | (2) |
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394 | (6) |
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400 | (3) |
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403 | (1) |
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9 Finished compost storage |
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403 | (1) |
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10 Blending compost products |
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404 | (1) |
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405 | (2) |
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407 | (2) |
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Chapter 10 Site planning, development, and environmental protection |
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409 | (92) |
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409 | (2) |
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2 Compost-site regulations |
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411 | (2) |
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3 Environmental and community considerations |
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413 | (2) |
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4 Site selection/evaluation |
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415 | (11) |
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416 | (2) |
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4.2 Proximity to sensitive land uses |
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418 | (2) |
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420 | (1) |
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421 | (1) |
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421 | (1) |
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4.6 Access and infrastructure |
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422 | (1) |
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4.7 Mobile phone and internet services |
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423 | (1) |
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423 | (1) |
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424 | (1) |
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4.10 Drainage, land slope, and topography |
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424 | (1) |
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425 | (1) |
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426 | (10) |
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426 | (2) |
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5.2 Drainage and stormwater control |
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428 | (3) |
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5.3 Utilities and facilities |
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431 | (5) |
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436 | (1) |
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7 Composting pad construction |
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437 | (13) |
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442 | (2) |
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444 | (1) |
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7.3 Engineered pad surfaces |
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445 | (2) |
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447 | (1) |
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448 | (1) |
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7.6 Roller-compacted concrete |
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448 | (1) |
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449 | (1) |
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450 | (1) |
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8 How much space? Estimating the area for composting |
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450 | (14) |
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8.1 Estimating the composting pad area |
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451 | (3) |
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454 | (7) |
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461 | (1) |
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8.4 Areas for feedstock receiving, mixing, and storage |
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461 | (2) |
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8.5 Areas for specific operations |
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463 | (1) |
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9 Building--roof and enclosures |
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464 | (4) |
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9.1 The environment within |
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465 | (1) |
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466 | (2) |
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10 Handling run-on/runoff |
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468 | (26) |
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10.1 Stormwater Pollution Prevention Planning |
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469 | (1) |
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10.2 Runoff characteristics and constituents |
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470 | (5) |
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10.3 Runoff system design considerations |
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475 | (7) |
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10.4 Runoff storage (ponds) |
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482 | (5) |
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487 | (7) |
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494 | (7) |
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Chapter 11 Process management |
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501 | (48) |
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501 | (3) |
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504 | (1) |
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504 | (10) |
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3.1 Temperature monitoring procedures |
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505 | (4) |
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3.2 Temperature measuring devices |
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509 | (1) |
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3.3 Temperature signals and responses |
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510 | (4) |
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4 Monitoring moisture content |
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514 | (9) |
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4.1 Evaluating moisture content by hand and experience |
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515 | (2) |
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4.2 Determining moisture by weight and drying |
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517 | (4) |
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4.3 Electronic moisture probes |
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521 | (1) |
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522 | (1) |
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5 Oxygen and carbon dioxide monitoring |
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523 | (5) |
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5.1 O2 and CO2 monitoring devices |
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523 | (3) |
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526 | (2) |
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6 Bulk density and free air space |
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528 | (1) |
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528 | (3) |
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7.1 pH measurement methods |
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528 | (2) |
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530 | (1) |
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8 Monitoring soluble salts (electrical conductivity) |
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531 | (1) |
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9 Conservation of nitrogen and organic matter |
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531 | (11) |
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532 | (4) |
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9.2 Conserving carbon and organic matter |
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536 | (1) |
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9.3 Feedstock additives that conserve nitrogen and greenhouse gasses |
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537 | (3) |
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9.4 Capture and containment |
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540 | (2) |
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542 | (7) |
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Chapter 12 Odor management and community relations |
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549 | (78) |
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549 | (2) |
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2 Odor regulations--"All Over the Map" |
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551 | (3) |
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3 The nature of composting odors |
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554 | (5) |
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4 The anatomy of an odor problem |
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559 | (1) |
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5 The nature of the nuisance |
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559 | (3) |
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6 Minimizing odors through site selection and management |
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562 | (3) |
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6.1 Site selection and layout |
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562 | (2) |
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564 | (1) |
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7 Odor generation during composting |
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565 | (4) |
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565 | (1) |
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566 | (2) |
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7.3 Feedstock mix properties |
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568 | (1) |
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8 Strategies to reduce the generation of odors |
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569 | (10) |
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8.1 Reducing odor generation from receiving and preprocessing |
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570 | (1) |
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8.2 Reducing odor generation from active composting |
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571 | (5) |
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8.3 Reducing odor generation from curing |
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576 | (1) |
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8.4 Reducing odor generation from stormwater |
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577 | (2) |
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9 Capture and control of odors once generated |
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579 | (1) |
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580 | (12) |
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10.1 Pile surface irrigation |
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581 | (1) |
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581 | (1) |
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582 | (1) |
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582 | (1) |
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583 | (2) |
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10.6 In-vessel composting |
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585 | (1) |
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586 | (1) |
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587 | (5) |
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11 Odor migration and dispersal |
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592 | (12) |
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593 | (2) |
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595 | (6) |
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601 | (1) |
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602 | (2) |
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12 Neighbor and community relations--complaints and more |
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604 | (5) |
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12.1 Neighborhood and community serenity commandments |
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604 | (4) |
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12.2 Odor complaint response |
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608 | (1) |
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13 Odor characterization and measurement |
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609 | (10) |
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13.1 Parameters used to characterize odors |
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609 | (3) |
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612 | (7) |
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619 | (8) |
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Chapter 13 Safety and health principles and practices for composting facilities |
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627 | (58) |
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627 | (1) |
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628 | (5) |
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3 Safety and health regulations |
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633 | (1) |
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4 Safety concerns at composting sites |
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633 | (16) |
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4.1 General equipment and site safety |
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633 | (7) |
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4.2 Safety provisions for specific operations |
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640 | (9) |
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5 Physiological health concerns |
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649 | (7) |
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649 | (1) |
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5.2 Physiological demands: overexertion, sprains, or strains |
|
|
650 | (1) |
|
|
650 | (4) |
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
5.5 Exposure to sunlight--ultraviolet radiation |
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
6 Biological and chemical health concerns |
|
|
656 | (10) |
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|
656 | (3) |
|
|
659 | (1) |
|
|
659 | (1) |
|
|
660 | (6) |
|
7 Prevention and preparedness |
|
|
666 | (9) |
|
7.1 Reducing exposure to safety and health hazards |
|
|
667 | (1) |
|
7.2 Medical monitoring: to establish a health baseline and to evaluate health |
|
|
667 | (2) |
|
7.3 Personal protective equipment |
|
|
669 | (1) |
|
7.4 Emergency action planning and fire response |
|
|
670 | (1) |
|
|
671 | (1) |
|
7.6 Means of exiting from a building |
|
|
672 | (1) |
|
|
673 | (2) |
|
|
675 | (10) |
|
Chapter 14 Facility management |
|
|
685 | (52) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
685 | (3) |
|
2 Administrative functions |
|
|
688 | (5) |
|
2.1 Regulatory requirements |
|
|
688 | (1) |
|
2.2 Tips for employee hiring and management |
|
|
688 | (2) |
|
|
690 | (1) |
|
2.4 Documents and records |
|
|
691 | (2) |
|
3 Managing the carbon footprint |
|
|
693 | (2) |
|
|
695 | (9) |
|
4.1 Traditional measurement tools |
|
|
695 | (2) |
|
4.2 Technical measuring tools |
|
|
697 | (7) |
|
|
704 | (10) |
|
5.1 Professional laboratory analysis |
|
|
705 | (2) |
|
|
707 | (1) |
|
|
707 | (7) |
|
6 Managing with the weather/seasons |
|
|
714 | (5) |
|
6.1 Exposure to weather extremes |
|
|
715 | (2) |
|
|
717 | (2) |
|
7 Preventing and managing fires |
|
|
719 | (8) |
|
|
720 | (2) |
|
7.2 Spontaneous combustion |
|
|
722 | (4) |
|
|
726 | (1) |
|
8 Preventing and managing nuisance conditions |
|
|
727 | (4) |
|
|
731 | (6) |
|
Chapter 15 Compost characteristics and quality |
|
|
737 | (40) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
737 | (2) |
|
2 Typical and typically variable, compost product qualities |
|
|
739 | (5) |
|
3 Compost performance characteristics |
|
|
744 | (12) |
|
|
744 | (1) |
|
|
745 | (1) |
|
3.3 Organic matter and organic carbon |
|
|
746 | (1) |
|
|
747 | (4) |
|
|
751 | (1) |
|
|
751 | (1) |
|
|
752 | (1) |
|
3.8 Water holding capacity |
|
|
753 | (1) |
|
3.9 Stability and maturity |
|
|
753 | (3) |
|
4 Aesthetic characteristics |
|
|
756 | (2) |
|
4.1 Physical contaminants (impurities) |
|
|
756 | (1) |
|
4.2 Color, odor, and moisture |
|
|
757 | (1) |
|
|
758 | (7) |
|
5.1 Pathogens and pathogen inactivation (sanitization, pasteurization) |
|
|
758 | (2) |
|
5.2 Chemical contaminants |
|
|
760 | (5) |
|
|
765 | (1) |
|
6 Compost quality standards |
|
|
765 | (3) |
|
7 Compost testing assurance |
|
|
768 | (1) |
|
8 Laboratory analysis of compost products |
|
|
769 | (3) |
|
|
772 | (5) |
|
|
777 | (70) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
777 | (1) |
|
2 General considerations for compost use |
|
|
778 | (19) |
|
|
781 | (2) |
|
2.2 Supplying plant nutrients (it's mostly about N, but P and K deliver value to) |
|
|
783 | (6) |
|
2.3 Sequester carbon in soils |
|
|
789 | (5) |
|
2.4 Using compost as mulch to manage soil erosion, water, and weeds |
|
|
794 | (3) |
|
3 Compost application rates |
|
|
797 | (8) |
|
3.1 Target soil organic matter level |
|
|
799 | (2) |
|
3.2 Target nutrient applications rate |
|
|
801 | (4) |
|
4 Equipment for spreading compost |
|
|
805 | (5) |
|
5 Specific agricultural, horticultural, and forestry applications |
|
|
810 | (13) |
|
5.1 Field crops (small grains, maize, fiber crops, hay, and pasture) |
|
|
810 | (3) |
|
|
813 | (3) |
|
|
816 | (3) |
|
5.4 Compost use in vineyards |
|
|
819 | (2) |
|
|
821 | (2) |
|
|
823 | (1) |
|
6 Nursery and greenhouse applications |
|
|
823 | (5) |
|
6.1 Field nursery production |
|
|
825 | (1) |
|
6.2 Container nursery production |
|
|
825 | (1) |
|
6.3 Greenhouse production of seedlings and annual crops |
|
|
826 | (2) |
|
7 Turf and landscape applications |
|
|
828 | (6) |
|
7.1 Turf establishment and maintenance |
|
|
828 | (2) |
|
|
830 | (2) |
|
|
832 | (1) |
|
7.4 Manufactured soils for rooftop gardens |
|
|
833 | (1) |
|
8 Erosion control and stormwater management |
|
|
834 | (4) |
|
|
838 | (9) |
|
Chapter 17 Compost use for plant disease suppression |
|
|
847 | (32) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
847 | (26) |
|
1.1 History of organic amendments used for plant disease suppression |
|
|
847 | (3) |
|
1.2 Plant diseases prone to suppression by compost |
|
|
850 | (4) |
|
1.3 Compost organisms that suppress plant diseases |
|
|
854 | (1) |
|
1.4 Specific versus general compost-mediated disease suppression |
|
|
854 | (6) |
|
1.5 Compost factors that affect disease suppression |
|
|
860 | (11) |
|
1.6 Indicators of suppression |
|
|
871 | (1) |
|
|
872 | (1) |
|
|
873 | (6) |
|
Chapter 18 Compost marketing and sales |
|
|
879 | (34) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
879 | (1) |
|
2 Marketplace for compost |
|
|
880 | (4) |
|
3 The Product(s)--compost(s) |
|
|
884 | (4) |
|
|
888 | (7) |
|
|
888 | (1) |
|
|
889 | (1) |
|
|
890 | (1) |
|
|
891 | (4) |
|
|
895 | (6) |
|
5.1 Market versus self-use |
|
|
895 | (1) |
|
5.2 Feedstocks versus market characteristics |
|
|
896 | (1) |
|
5.3 Volume versus value markets--market hierarchies |
|
|
897 | (1) |
|
5.4 Bulk versus packaged products sales |
|
|
898 | (1) |
|
|
899 | (2) |
|
|
901 | (1) |
|
|
901 | (6) |
|
|
907 | (4) |
|
7.1 The compost supplier and salesperson |
|
|
907 | (1) |
|
|
908 | (1) |
|
|
909 | (1) |
|
|
909 | (1) |
|
7.5 Compost sales tools and services |
|
|
910 | (1) |
|
|
911 | (2) |
|
Chapter 19 Composting economics |
|
|
913 | (32) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
913 | (1) |
|
|
914 | (15) |
|
2.1 Revenue/savings items |
|
|
916 | (6) |
|
|
922 | (5) |
|
|
927 | (2) |
|
|
929 | (5) |
|
|
932 | (2) |
|
4 Economics of compost use |
|
|
934 | (8) |
|
4.1 Nutrient value of compost |
|
|
936 | (3) |
|
4.2 Compost use in sediment and erosion control |
|
|
939 | (3) |
|
|
942 | (3) |
Appendices |
|
945 | (2) |
Sources of photographs and external graphics |
|
947 | (6) |
Index |
|
953 | |