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Compound Semiconductor Radiation Detectors [Mīkstie vāki]

(European Space Agency, Noordwijk, The Netherlands)
  • Formāts: Paperback / softback, 567 pages, height x width: 234x156 mm, weight: 1070 g, 45 Tables, black and white; 18 Illustrations, color; 165 Illustrations, black and white
  • Sērija : Series in Sensors
  • Izdošanas datums: 26-Oct-2016
  • Izdevniecība: CRC Press
  • ISBN-10: 1138199583
  • ISBN-13: 9781138199583
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  • Cena: 96,32 €
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Compound Semiconductor Radiation DetectorsPalielināt
  • Formāts: Paperback / softback, 567 pages, height x width: 234x156 mm, weight: 1070 g, 45 Tables, black and white; 18 Illustrations, color; 165 Illustrations, black and white
  • Sērija : Series in Sensors
  • Izdošanas datums: 26-Oct-2016
  • Izdevniecība: CRC Press
  • ISBN-10: 1138199583
  • ISBN-13: 9781138199583
Citas grāmatas par šo tēmu:
Permanent link: https://www.kriso.lv/db/9781138199583.html
Keywords:

Although elemental semiconductors such as silicon and germanium are standard for energy dispersive spectroscopy in the laboratory, their use for an increasing range of applications is becoming marginalized by their physical limitations, namely the need for ancillary cooling, their modest stopping powers, and radiation intolerance. Compound semiconductors, on the other hand, encompass such a wide range of physical and electronic properties that they have become viable competitors in a number of applications. Compound Semiconductor Radiation Detectors is a consolidated source of information on all aspects of the use of compound semiconductors for radiation detection and measurement.

Serious Competitors to Germanium and Silicon Radiation Detectors

Wide-gap compound semiconductors offer the ability to operate in a range of hostile thermal and radiation environments while still maintaining sub-keV spectral resolution at X-ray wavelengths. Narrow-gap materials offer the potential of exceeding the spectral resolution of germanium by a factor of three. However, while compound semiconductors are routinely used at infrared and optical wavelengths, their development in other wavebands has been plagued by material and fabrication problems. So far, only a few have evolved sufficiently to produce commercial detection systems.

From Crystal Growth to Spectroscopic Performance

Bringing together information scattered across many disciplines, this book summarizes the current status of research in compound semiconductor radiation detectors. It examines the properties, growth, and characterization of compound semiconductors as well as the fabrication of radiation sensors, with particular emphasis on the X- and gamma-ray regimes. It explores the limitations of compound semiconductors and discusses current efforts to improve spectral performances, pointing to where future discoveries may lie.

A timely resource for the established researcher, this book serves as a comprehensive and illustrated reference on material science, crystal growth, metrology, detector physics, and spectroscopy. It can also be used as a textbook for those new to the field of compound semiconductors and their application to radiation detection and measurement.

Recenzijas

"The book provides an invaluable source of knowledge to graduate students and researchers of detector technology, radiation physics and measurements. Moreover, advance and senior researchers can also benefit from it." M. Jamil, Contemporary Physics, 2013

List of Figures xiii
Preface xxxiii
About the Author xlv
Chapter 1 Semiconductors 1(48)
1.1 Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators
1.2 Energy Band Formation
1.3 General Properties of the Bandgap
1.3.1 Carrier Generation and Recombination
1.3.2 Pressure Dependence of the Bandgap
1.3.3 Temperature Dependence of the Bandgap
1.3.4 Direct and Indirect Bandgaps
1.3.4.1 Electrons in Solids
1.3.4.2 Electrons in the Conduction Band
1.3.4.3 Band Morphology
1.4 Carrier Mobility
1.5 Effective Mass
1.6 Carrier Velocity
1.6.1 Saturated Carrier Velocities
1.7 Conduction in Semiconductors
1.7.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors
1.7.1.1 Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
1.7.2 Extrinsic Semiconductors
1.7.2.1 Donors and Acceptors
1.7.2.2 Extrinsic Carrier Concentration
1.7.2.3 Doping Dependence of the Energy Bandgap
1.7.2.4 Practical Considerations
1.7.3 Conductivity and Resistivity
References
Chapter 2 Growth Techniques 49(70)
2.1 Crystal Lattices
2.1.1 The Unit Cell
2.1.2 Bravais Lattice
2.1.3 The Pearson Notation
2.1.4 Space Groups
2.1.5 Miller Indices
2.2 Underlying Crystal Structure of Compound Semiconductors
2.2.1 Lattice Constant and Bandgap Energy of Alloy Semiconductors
2.2.2 Bonding
2.2.3 Common Semiconductor Structures
2.2.4 Polycrystalline and Amorphous Structures
2.3 Crystal Formation
2.4 Crystal Defects
2.4.1 Point Defects
2.4.2 Line Defects (Dislocations)
2.4.2.1 Edge Dislocations
2.4.3 Plane Defects
2.4.4 Bulk Defects
2.5 Crystal Growth
2.5.1 Material Purification
2.6 Bulk Growth Techniques
2.6.1 Czochralski (CZ)
2.6.2 Liquid Encapsulated Czochralski (LEC)
2.6.2.1 Limitations of the Czochralski Method
2.6.3 Vapor Pressure Controlled Czochralski (VCz)
2.6.4 Float-Zone Growth Technique (FZ)
2.6.5 Bridgman-Stockbarger (B-S)
2.6.6 High Pressure Bridgman (HPB)
2.6.7 Travelled Molten Zone (TMZ) or Heater Method (THM)
2.6.8 Vertical Gradient Freeze (VGF)
2.7 Discussion
2.8 Epitaxy
2.8.1 Substrates
2.8.2 Strain and Electronic Properties
2.8.3 Lattice Matching
2.8.4 Bandgap Engineering
2.9 Growth Techniques: VPE, LPE, MBE, and MOCVD
2.9.1 Liquid-Phase Epitaxy (LPE)
2.9.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)/ Vapor-Phase Epitaxy (VPE)
2.9.2.1 Doping in Vapor Deposition Systems
2.9.3 The Multi-Tube Physical Vapor Transport (MTVPT) Technique
2.9.4 Molecular-Beam Epitaxy (MBE)
2.9.5 Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD)
References
Chapter 3 Detector Fabrication 119(88)
3.1 Mechanical Processing Overview
3.1.1 Thermal Annealing
3.1.2 Cutting
3.1.3 Lapping and Polishing
3.1.4 Etching
3.1.5 Cleaning
3.1.6 Contact Deposition
3.1.7 Lithography
3.2 Detector Characterization
3.2.1 Chemical Analysis
3.2.1.1 Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectroscopy (ICP-MS and ICP-OES)
3.2.1.2 Glow-Discharge Mass Spectrometry (GDMS)
3.2.2 Crystallographic Characterization
3.2.2.1 Single-Crystal X-Ray Diffraction
3.2.2.2 Powder Diffraction
3.2.2.3 Rocking Curve (RC) Measurements
3.2.2.4 XRD and Detector Performance
3.2.3 Electrical Characterization
3.2.3.1 Current-Voltage (I-V) Measurements
3.2.3.2 Contact Characterization
3.2.3.3 Measuring Contact Resistance
3.2.3.4 Capacitance-Voltage (C-V) Measurements
3.2.4 Electronic Characterization
3.2.4.1 Determining the Majority Carrier
3.2.4.2 Determining Effective Mass
3.2.4.3 The Hall Effect
3.2.5 Evaluating the Charge Transport Properties
3.2.5.1 Estimating the Mobilities
3.2.5.2 Estimating the Mu-Tau (u1) Products
3.2.5.3 Limitations of the Hecht Equation
3.2.5.4 Measuring the Charge Collection Efficiency
3.2.6 Defect Characterization
3.2.6.1 Thermally Stimulated Current (TSC) Spectroscopy
3.2.6.2 Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy
3.2.6.3 Photo-Induced Current Transient Spectroscopy (PICTS)
3.2.7 Photon Metrology
3.2.7.1 Synchrotron Radiation
3.2.7.2 Light Sources
3.2.7.3 Synchrotron Radiation Facilities
3.2.7.4 Properties of the Beam
3.2.7.5 Beamline Design
3.2.7.6 Installing the Detector
3.2.7.7 Harmonic Suppression
3.2.7.8 Extending the Energy Range
3.2.7.9 Detector Characterization
3.2.7.10 Probing Depth Dependences
3.2.7.11 Defect Metrology
3.2.7.12 Pump and Probe Techniques
3.2.7.13 X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure (XAFS) Metrology
3.2.7.14 Structural Studies
3.2.7.15 Topographical and Surface Studies
References
Chapter 4 Contacting Systems 207(40)
4.1 Metal Semiconductor Interfaces
4.2 Schottky Barriers
4.2.1 Image Force Reduction of the Schottky Barrier
4.2.2 Barrier Width
4.2.3 Measured Barrier Heights
4.2.3.1 Metal-Induced Gap States (MIGS)
4.2.3.2 Fermi Level Pinning
4.3 Current Transport across a Schottky Barrier
4.3.1 Thermionic Emission (TE)
4.3.2 Thermionic Assisted Field Emission (TFE)
4.3.3 Field Emission (FE)
4.3.4 Relative Contributions of TE, TFE, and FE
4.3.5 Estimated Contact Resistances for TE, FTE, and FE Current Modes
4.3.6 Other Current Components
4.3.6.1 Current Due to Image Force Lowering of the Potential Barrier
4.3.6.2 Generation-Recombination Effects
4.3.6.3 Surface Leakage Current
4.4 Ohmic Contacts
4.4.1 Practical Ohmic Contacts
4.4.2 Barrier Height Reduction
4.4.2.1 Choice of Metal
4.4.2.2 Doping Concentration
4.4.2.3 Annealing
4.4.2.4 Interface Doping
4.4.3 Barrier Width Reduction
4.4.4 Introducing Recombination Centers
4.4.5 Desirable Properties of Ohmic Contacts
4.4.6 Nonideal Effects in Metal-Semiconductor Junctions
4.5 Contactless (Proximity Effect) Readout
References
Chapter 5 Radiation Detection and Measurement 247(40)
5.1 Interaction of Radiation with Matter
5.2 Charged Particles
5.2.1 Energy Loss of Secondary Electrons-Collisional and Bremsstrahlung
5.3 Neutron Detection
5.4 X- and Gamma Rays
5.4.1 Photoelectric Effect
5.4.2 Coherent Scattering-Thomson and Rayleigh Scattering
5.4.3 Incoherent Scattering-Compton Scattering
5.4.4 Pair Production
5.5 Attenuation and Absorption of Electromagnetic Radiation
5.6 Radiation Detection Using Compound Semiconductors
5.6.1 Photoconductors
5.6.2 The Solid-State Ionization Chamber
5.6.2.1 Spectral Broadening in Radiation Detection Systems
References
Chapter 6 Present Detection Systems 287(82)
6.1 Compound Semiconductors and Radiation Detection
6.2 Group IV and IV-IV Materials
6.2.1 Silicon Carbide
6.2.2 Diamond
6.3 Group III-V Materials
6.3.1 Gallium Arsenide
6.3.2 Gallium Phosphide
6.3.3 Gallium Nitride
6.3.4 Indium Phosphide
6.3.5 Indium Iodide
6.3.6 Narrow-Gap Materials
6.3.6.1 Indium Arsenide
6.3.6.2 Indium Antimonide
6.4 Group II-VI Materials
6.4.1 Cadmium Telluride
6.4.2 Cadmium Zinc Telluride
6.4.3 Cadmium Manganese Telluride
6.4.4 Cadmium Selenide
6.4.5 Cadmium Zinc Selenide
6.4.6 Cadmium Telluride Selenide
6.4.7 Zinc Selenide
6.5 Group III-VI Materials
6.5.1 Gallium Selenide
6.5.2 Gallium Telluride
6.6 Group n-VII Materials
6.6.1 Mercuric Iodide
6.6.2 Mercuric Bromoiodide
6.6.3 Thallium Bromide
6.6.4 Thallium Bromoiodide
6.6.5 Lead Iodide
6.6.6 Bismuth Triiodide
6.7 Ternary Compounds
6.7.1 Thallium Lead Iodide
6.7.2 Thallium Chalcohalides
6.7.2.1 Thallium Gallium Selenide
6.7.2.2 Thallium Iodide Selenide
6.8 Other Inorganic Compounds
6.9 Organic Compounds
6.10 Discussion
6.11 Neutron Detection
6.11.1 Indirect Neutron Detection
6.11.2 Direct Neutron Detection
6.11.3 Choice of Compound
References
Chapter 7
Chapter Improving Performance		 369(40)
7.1 Single Carrier Collection and Correction Techniques
7.1.1 Rise Time Discrimination
7.1.2 Bi-Parametric Techniques
7.1.3 Stack Geometries
7.1.4 Hemispherical Detectors
7.1.5 Coaxial Geometries
7.2 Electrode Design and the Near-Field Effect
7.2.1 Frisch Grid /Ring Detectors
7.2.2 Small-Pixel Effect Detectors
7.2.3 Drift-Strip Detectors
7.2.4 Coplanar Grid Detectors
7.2.5 Ring-Drift Detectors
7.2.6 Other Implementations
7.2.7 Combinations of Techniques
7.3 Discussion and Conclusions
7.4 The Future
7.4.1 General Requirements on Detector Material
7.4.2 The Longer Term
References
Appendix A: Table of Physical Constants 409(4)
Appendix B: Units and Conversions 413(4)
Appendix C: Periodic Table of the Elements 417(2)
Appendix D: Properties of the Elements 419(8)
Appendix E: General Properties of Semiconducting Materials 427(56)
Appendix F: Table of Radioactive Calibration Sources 483(28)
Index 511
Dr. Alan Owens has an undergraduate degree in Physics and Physical Electronics and a Doctorate from the University of Durham, United Kingdom, in Astrophysics. He spent 30 years in the design and construction of novel detection systems for X- and gamma-ray astronomy and is currently a staff physicist at the European Space Agency, involved in the development and exploitation of new technologies for space applications. Much of this work revolves around compound semiconductors for radiation detection and measurement, which by its very nature involves materials and systems at a low level of maturity. Consequently, he has been involved in all aspects of a systematic and long-term program on material assessment, production, processing, detector fabrication, and characterization for a large number of compound semiconductors.