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E-grāmata: Dairy Chemistry and Biochemistry

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P. F. Fox, J. A. O'Mahony, P. L. H. McSweeney, T. Uniacke-Lowe

Formāts: PDF+DRM
Izdošanas datums: 19-Jun-2015
Izdevniecība: Springer International Publishing AG
Valoda: eng
ISBN-13: 9783319148922

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Formāts: PDF+DRM
Izdošanas datums: 19-Jun-2015
Izdevniecība: Springer International Publishing AG
Valoda: eng
ISBN-13: 9783319148922

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This book is the most comprehensive introductory text on the chemistry and biochemistry of milk. It provides a comprehensive description of the principal constituents of milk (water, lipids, proteins, lactose, salts, vitamins, indigenous enzymes) and of the chemical aspects of cheese and fermented milks and of various dairy processing operations. It also covers heat-induced changes in milk, the use of exogenous enzymes in dairy processing, principal physical properties of milk, bioactive compounds in milk and comparison of milk of different species. This book is designed to meet the needs of senior students and dairy scientists in general.

1.Production and Utilization of Milk.- 2.Lactose.- 3.Milk Lipids.- 4.Milk Proteins.- 5.Salts of Milk.- 6.Vitamins in Milk and Dairy Products.- 7.Water in Milk and Dairy Products.- 8.Physical Properties of Milk.- 9.Heat-induced changes in Milk.- 10.Enzymology of Milk and Dairy Products.- 11. Biologically Active Compounds in Milk.- 12.Chemistry and Biochemistry of Cheese.- 13.Chemistry and Biochemistry of Fermented Milk Products.

1 Production and Utilization of Milk

(20)

1.1 Introduction

(1)

1.2 Composition and Variability of Milk

(2)

1.3 Classification of Mammals

(1)

1.4 Structure and Development of Mammary Tissue

(3)

1.5 Ultrastructure of the Secretory Cell

(1)

1.6 Techniques Used to Study Milk Synthesis

(3)

1.6.1 Arterio-Venous Concentration Differences

(1)

1.6.2 Isotope Studies

(1)

1.6.3 Perfusion of Isolated Gland

(1)

1.6.4 Tissue Slices

(1)

1.6.5 Cell Homogenates

(1)

1.6.6 Tissue Culture

(1)

1.7 Biosynthesis of Milk Constituents

(1)

1.8 Production and Utilization of Milk

(4)

1.9 Trade in Milk Products

(6)

References

(1)

Suggested Reading

(2)

2 Lactose

(48)

2.1 Introduction

(3)

2.2 Chemical and Physical Properties of Lactose

(16)

2.2.1 Structure of Lactose

(2)

2.2.2 Biosynthesis of Lactose

(1)

2.2.3 Lactose Equilibrium in Solution

(1)

2.2.4 Significance of Mutarotation

(1)

2.2.5 Solubility of Lactose

(1)

2.2.6 Crystallization of Lactose

(3)

2.2.7 Problems related to Lactose Crystallization

(8)

2.3 Production of Lactose

(3)

2.4 Derivatives of Lactose

(10)

2.4.1 Enzymatic Modification of Lactose

(1)

2.4.2 Chemical Modifications

(4)

2.4.3 Fermentation Products

(5)

2.5 Lactose and the Maillard Reaction

(3)

2.6 Nutritional Aspects of Lactose

(4)

2.6.1 Lactose Intolerance

(3)

2.6.2 Galactosemia

(1)

2.7 Determination of Lactose Concentration

(4)

2.7.1 Polarimetry

(1)

2.7.2 Oxidation and Reduction Titration

(2)

2.7.3 Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy

(1)

2.7.4 Colorimetric Methods

(1)

2.7.5 Chromatographic Methods

(1)

2.7.6 Enzymatic Methods

(1)

2.8 Oligosaccharides

(5)

References

(2)

Suggested Reading

(1)

3 Milk Lipids

(76)

3.1 Introduction

(1)

3.2 Factors that Affect the Fat Content of Bovine Milk

(2)

3.3 Classes of Lipids in Milk

(4)

3.4 Fatty Acid Profile of Milk Lipids

(6)

3.5 Synthesis of Fatty Acids in Milk Fat

(4)

3.6 Structure of Milk Lipids

(4)

3.7 Milk Fat as an Emulsion

(1)

3.8 Milk Fat Globule Membrane

(11)

3.8.1 Isolation of the Fat Globule Membrane

(1)

3.8.2 Gross Chemical Composition of FGM

(1)

3.8.3 The Protein Fraction

(2)

3.8.4 The Lipid Fraction

(1)

3.8.5 Other Membrane Components

(1)

3.8.6 Membrane Structure

(2)

3.8.7 Secretion of Milk Lipid Globules

(3)

3.9 Stability of the Milk Fat Emulsion

102

(5)

3.9.1 Emulsion Stability in General

102

(2)

3.9.2 The Creaming Process in Milk

104

(3)

3.10 Influence of Processing Operations on the Fat Globule Membrane

107

(8)

3.10.1 Milk Supply: Hydrolytic Rancidity

107

(2)

3.10.2 Mechanical Separation of Milk

109

(3)

3.10.3 Homogenization

112

(3)

3.10.4 Heating

115

(1)

3.11 Physical Defects in Milk and Cream

115

(2)

3.11.1 Free Fat

116

(1)

3.12 Churning

117

(5)

3.12.1 Buttermilk

121

(1)

3.13 Freezing

122

(1)

3.14 Dehydration

122

(1)

3.15 Lipid Oxidation

123

(7)

3.15.1 Autocatalytic Mechanism

123

(3)

3.15.2 Pro-oxidants in Milk and Milk Products

126

(2)

3.15.3 Antioxidants in Milk

128

(1)

3.15.4 Spontaneous Oxidation

128

(1)

3.15.5 Other Factors that Affect Lipid Oxidation in Milk and Dairy Products

129

(1)

3.15.6 Measurement of Lipid Oxidation

130

(1)

3.16 Rheology of Milk Fat

130

(5)

3.16.1 Fatty Acid Profile and Distribution

130

(2)

3.16.2 Process Parameters

132

(3)

3.17 Analytical Methods for the Quantitative Determination of Milk Fat

135

(3)

3.18 Appendix A: Principal Fatty Acids in Milk Fat

138

(1)

3.19 Appendix B

139

(2)

3.20 Appendix C

141

(4)

References

141

(2)

Suggested Reading

143

(2)

4 Milk Proteins

145

(96)

4.1 Introduction

145

(3)

4.2 Heterogeneity of Milk Proteins

148

(2)

4.2.1 Other Protein Fractions

149

(1)

4.3 Preparation of Casein and Whey Proteins

150

(4)

4.3.1 Acid (Isoelectric) Precipitation

150

(1)

4.3.2 Centrifugation

151

(1)

4.3.3 Centrifugation of Calcium-Supplemented Milk

151

(1)

4.3.4 Salting-Out Methods

151

(1)

4.3.5 Ultrafiltration

152

(1)

4.3.6 Microfiltration

152

(1)

4.3.7 Gel Filtration (Gel Permeation Chromatography)

153

(1)

4.3.8 Precipitation with Ethanol

153

(1)

4.3.9 Cryoprecipitation

153

(1)

4.3.10 Rennet Coagulation

154

(1)

4.3.11 Other Methods for the Preparation of Whey Proteins

154

(1)

4.4 Heterogeneity and Fractionation of Casein

154

(9)

4.4.1 Resolution of Caseins by Electrophoresis

155

(5)

4.4.2 Microheterogeneity of the Caseins

160

(2)

4.4.3 Nomenclature of the Caseins

162

(1)

4.5 Some Important Properties of the Caseins

163

(15)

4.5.1 Chemical Composition

163

(10)

4.5.2 Secondary and Tertiary Structures

173

(3)

4.5.3 Molecular Size

176

(1)

4.5.4 Hydrophobicity

177

(1)

4.5.5 Influence of Ca2+ on Caseins

177

(1)

4.5.6 Action of Rennets on Casein

178

(1)

4.5.7 Casein Association

178

(1)

4.6 Casein Micelles

178

(9)

4.6.1 Composition and General Features

178

(1)

4.6.2 Stability

179

(2)

4.6.3 Principal Micelle Characteristics

181

(2)

4.6.4 Micelle Structure

183

(4)

4.7 Whey Proteins

187

(2)

4.7.1 Preparation

187

(1)

4.7.2 Heterogeneity of Whey Proteins

188

(1)

4.8 β-Lactoglobulin

189

(4)

4.8.1 Occurrence and Microheterogeneity

189

(1)

4.8.2 Amino Acid Composition

189

(1)

4.8.3 Primary Structure

190

(1)

4.8.4 Secondary Structure

190

(1)

4.8.5 Tertiary Structure

190

(2)

4.8.6 Quaternary Structure

192

(1)

4.8.7 Physiological Function

193

(1)

4.8.8 Denaturation

193

(1)

4.9 Whey Acidic Protein

193

(1)

4.10 α-Lactalbumin

194

(3)

4.10.1 Amino Acid Composition

194

(1)

4.10.2 Genetic Variants

194

(1)

4.10.3 Primary Structure

194

(1)

4.10.4 Secondary and Tertiary Structure

194

(2)

4.10.5 Quaternary Structure

196

(1)

4.10.6 Other Species

196

(1)

4.10.7 Biological Function

196

(1)

4.10.8 Metal Binding and Heat Stability

196

(1)

4.10.9 Apoptosis Effect on Tumour Cells

196

(1)

4.11 Blood Serum Albumin

197

(1)

4.12 Immunoglobulins (lg)

198

(4)

4.13 Proteose Peptone 3

202

(1)

4.14 Minor Milk Proteins

202

(1)

4.15 Non-protein Nitrogen

202

(1)

4.16 Interspecies Comparison of Milk Proteins

203

(2)

4.17 Synthesis and Secretion of Milk Proteins

205

(8)

4.17.1 Sources of Amino Acids

206

(1)

4.17.2 Amino Acid Transport into the Mammary Cell

206

(1)

4.17.3 Synthesis of Milk Proteins

206

(3)

4.17.4 Modifications of the Polypeptide Chain

209

(1)

4.17.5 Structure and Expression of Milk Protein Genes

210

(1)

4.17.6 Secretion of Milk-Specific Proteins

210

(2)

4.17.7 Secretion of Immunoglobulins

212

(1)

4.18 Functional Milk Protein Products

213

(13)

4.18.1 Industrial Production of Caseins

215

(4)

4.18.2 Novel Methods for Casein Production

219

(1)

4.18.3 Fractionation of Casein

220

(1)

4.18.4 Functional (Physicochemical) Properties of Caseins

221

(2)

4.18.5 Applications of Caseins and Whey Proteins

223

(1)

4.18.6 Casein-Whey Protein Co-precipitates

223

(3)

4.19 Methods for Quantitation of Proteins in Foods

226

(15)

4.19.1 Kjeldahl Method

226

(3)

4.19.2 The Formol Titration

229

(1)

4.19.3 Absorbance of UV Light

229

(1)

4.19.4 Biuret Method

230

(1)

4.19.5 Folin-Ciocalteau (F-C) Method

230

(1)

4.19.6 Dye-Binding Methods

230

(1)

4.19.7 Bradford Method

231

(1)

4.19.8 Infra-Red Spectroscopy

231

(1)

4.19.9 Dumas Method

231

(1)

Appendix 4A Structures of Amino Acids Occurring in Proteins

232

(1)

References

233

(5)

Suggested Reading

238

(3)

5 Salts of Milk

241

(30)

5.1 Introduction

241

(1)

5.2 Method of Analysis

241

(1)

5.3 Composition of Milk Salts

242

(2)

5.4 Secretion of Milk Salts

244

(1)

5.5 Factors Influencing Variation in Salt Composition

245

(4)

5.5.1 Breed of Cow

246

(1)

5.5.2 Stage of Lactation

246

(2)

5.5.3 Infection of the Udder

248

(1)

5.5.4 Feed

249

(1)

5.6 Interrelations of Milk Salt Constituents

249

(12)

5.6.1 Partition of Milk Salts Between Colloidal and Soluble Phases

251

(1)

5.6.2 Methods Used to Separate the Colloidal and Soluble Phases

251

(1)

5.6.3 Soluble Salts

252

(4)

5.6.4 Measurement of Calcium and Magnesium Ions

256

(1)

5.6.5 Colloidal Milk Salts

257

(4)

5.7 Changes in Milk Salts Equilibrium Induced by Various Treatments

261

(5)

5.7.1 Addition of Acid or Alkali

261

(1)

5.7.2 Addition of Various Salts

262

(1)

5.7.3 Effect of Changes in Temperature

263

(1)

5.7.4 Changes in pH Induced by Temperature

264

(1)

5.7.5 Effect of Dilution and Concentration

265

(1)

5.7.6 Effect of Freezing

265

(1)

5.7.7 Effect of Ultrafiltration

266

(1)

5.7.8 Effect of High Pressure Processing

266

(1)

5.8 Fortification of Milk with Inorganic Elements

266

(1)

5.9 Synthetic Milk Ultrafiltrate

267

(4)

References

267

(2)

Suggested Reading

269

(2)

6 Vitamins in Milk and Dairy Products

271

(28)

6.1 Introduction

271

(1)

6.2 Fat-Soluble Vitamins

272

(9)

6.2.1 Retinol (Vitamin A)

272

(4)

6.2.2 Calciferols (Vitamin D)

276

(2)

6.2.3 Tocopherols and Related Compounds (Vitamin E)

278

(2)

6.2.4 Phylloquinone and Related Compounds (Vitamin K)

280

(1)

6.3 B-Group Vitamins

281

(14)

6.3.1 Thiamine (Vitamin B1)

282

(2)

6.3.2 Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)

284

(2)

6.3.3 Niacin

286

(1)

6.3.4 Biotin

287

(1)

6.3.5 Pantothenic Acid

288

(1)

6.3.6 Pyridoxine and Related Compounds (Vitamin B6)

288

(3)

6.3.7 Folate

291

(3)

6.3.8 Cobalamin and Its Derivatives (Vitamin B12)

294

(1)

6.4 Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)

295

(4)

References

297

(2)

7 Water in Milk and Dairy Products

299

(22)

7.1 Introduction

299

(1)

7.2 General Properties of Water

299

(7)

7.3 Water Activity

306

(3)

7.4 Water Sorption

309

(7)

7.5 Glass Transition and the Role of Water in Plasticization

316

(1)

7.6 Non-equilibrium Ice Formation

316

(1)

7.7 Role of Water in Stickiness and Caking of Powders and Crystallization of Lactose

317

(1)

7.8 Water and the Stability of Dairy Products

317

(4)

References

320

(1)

Suggested Reading

320

(1)

8 Physical Properties of Milk

321

(24)

8.1 Ionic Strength

321

(1)

8.2 Density

322

(1)

8.3 Redox Properties of Milk

323

(4)

8.4 Colligative Properties of Milk

327

(4)

8.5 Interfacial Tension

331

(2)

8.6 Acid-Base Equilibria

333

(3)

8.7 Rheological Properties

336

(3)

8.7.1 Newtonian Behaviour

336

(1)

8.7.2 Non-Newtonian Behaviour

337

(1)

8.7.3 Rheology of Milk Gels

338

(1)

8.7.4 Rheological Properties of Milk Fat

339

(1)

8.8 Electrical Conductivity

339

(1)

8.9 Thermal Properties of Milk

339

(1)

8.10 Interaction of Light with Milk and Dairy Products

340

(2)

8.11 Colour of Milk and Milk Products

342

(3)

References

343

(2)

9 Heat-Induced Changes in Milk

345

(32)

9.1 Introduction

345

(2)

9.2 Lipids

347

(3)

9.2.1 Physico-Chemical Changes

347

(2)

9.2.2 Chemical Changes

349

(1)

9.2.3 Denaturation of Indigenous Enzymes

350

(1)

9.3 Lactose

350

(4)

9.3.1 Formation of Lactulose

351

(1)

9.3.2 Formation of Acids

351

(2)

9.3.3 Maillard Browning

353

(1)

9.4 Milk Salts

354

(3)

9.5 Vitamins

357

(1)

9.6 Proteins

357

(7)

9.6.1 Enzymes

357

(2)

9.6.2 Denaturation of Other Biologically-Active Proteins

359

(1)

9.6.3 Denaturation of Whey Proteins

359

(3)

9.6.4 Effect of Heat on Caseins

362

(2)

9.7 Heat Stability of Milk

364

(5)

9.7.1 Effect of Processing Operations on Heat Stability

367

(2)

9.8 Effect of Heat Treatment on Rennet Coagulation of Milk and Related Properties

369

(1)

9.9 Age Gelation of Sterilized Milk

370

(1)

9.10 Heat-Induced Changes in Flavour of Milk

370

(7)

References

373

(2)

Suggested Reading

375

(2)

10 Enzymology of Milk and Milk Products

377

(38)

10.1 Introduction

377

(1)

10.2 Indigenous Enzymes of Bovine Milk

378

(22)

10.2.1 Introduction

378

(1)

10.2.2 Proteinases (EC 3.4.-.-)

379

(3)

10.2.3 Lipases and Esterases (EC 3.1.1.-)

382

(2)

10.2.4 Phosphatases (EC 3.1.3 -)

384

(4)

10.2.5 Ribonuclease

388

(1)

10.2.6 Lysozyme(EC 3.1.2.17)

389

(1)

10.2.7 N-Acetyl-β-d-Glucosaminidase (EC 3.2.1.30)

390

(1)

10.2.8 γ-Glutamyl Transpeptidase (Transferase) (EC 2.3.2.2)

390

(1)

10.2.9 Amylases (EC 3.2.1.-)

391

(1)

10.2.10 Catalase(EC 1.11.1.6)

391

(1)

10.2.11 Lactoperoxidase (EC 1.11.1.7)

392

(2)

10.2.12 Xanthine Oxidoreductase (XOR) [ EC, 1.13.22; 1.1.1.204]

394

(2)

10.2.13 Sulphydryl Oxidase (EC 1.8.3.-)

396

(1)

10.2.14 Superoxide Dismutase (EC 1.15.1.1)

396

(1)

10.2.15 Other Enzymes

397

(3)

10.3 Exogenous Enzymes in Dairy Technology

400

(15)

10.3.1 Introduction

400

(1)

10.3.2 Proteinases

400

(2)

10.3.3 β-Galactosidase

402

(1)

10.3.4 Lipases

402

(1)

10.3.5 Lysozyme

403

(1)

10.3.6 Transglutaminase

404

(1)

10.3.7 Catalase(EC 1.1.1.6)

404

(1)

10.3.8 Glucose Oxidase (EC 1.1.3.4)

405

(1)

10.3.9 Superoxide Dismutase (EC 1.15.1.1)

406

(1)

10.3.10 Glucose Isomerase (EC 5.3.1.5)

406

(1)

10.3.11 Exogenous Enzymes in Food Analysis

407

(4)

References and Suggested Reading

411

(1)

Indigenous Enzymes in Milk

411

(3)

Exogenous Enzymes in Dairy Technology and Analysis

414

(1)

11 Biologically Active Compounds in Milk

415

(84)

11.1 Introduction

415

(2)

11.2 Bioactive Milk Lipids

417

(3)

11.2.1 Medium Chain Fatty Acids

417

(1)

11.2.2 Conjugated Linoleic Acid

417

(1)

11.2.3 Polar Milk Lipids

418

(1)

11.2.4 Fatty Acids with Significant Bioactivity

418

(1)

11.2.5 Gangliosides

419

(1)

11.2.6 Milk Fat Globule Membrane

419

(1)

11.2.7 Phospholipids

420

(1)

11.3 Bioactive Milk Carbohydrates

420

(3)

11.3.1 Lactose

421

(1)

11.3.2 Oligosaccharides

421

(1)

11.3.3 Bifidus Factors

422

(1)

11.3.4 Fucose

422

(1)

11.4 Vitamins

423

(1)

11.5 Bioactive Milk Proteins

424

(7)

11.5.1 Caseins

424

(1)

11.5.2 Whey Proteins

425

(3)

11.5.3 Vitamin-Binding Proteins

428

(2)

11.5.4 Hormone-Binding Proteins

430

(1)

11.5.5 Metal-Binding Proteins

430

(1)

11.6 Minor Biologically-Active Proteins in Milk

431

(4)

11.6.1 Heparin Affinity Regulatory Peptide

432

(1)

11.6.2 Colostrinin

432

(1)

11.6.3 β2-Microglobulin

433

(1)

11.6.4 Osteopontin

433

(1)

11.6.5 Proteose Peptone-3

433

(1)

11.6.6 Angiogenins

433

(1)

11.6.7 Kininogens

434

(1)

11.6.8 Glycoproteins

434

(1)

11.7 Indigenous Milk Enzymes

435

(1)

11.7.1 Lysozyme

435

(1)

11.7.2 Lactoperoxidase

436

(1)

11.8 Bioactive Milk Peptides

436

(21)

11.8.1 Production of Bioactive Peptides

437

(1)

11.8.2 Physiological Functionality of Bioactive Peptides

438

(19)

11.9 Free Amino Acids

457

(1)

11.10 Hormones, Growth Factors and Cytokines

458

(11)

11.10.1 Gonadal Hormones

461

(1)

11.10.2 Adrenal Hormones

461

(1)

11.10.3 Brain-Gut Hormones

461

(2)

11.10.4 Growth Factors

463

(3)

11.10.5 Cytokines

466

(1)

11.10.6 Adipokins

467

(2)

11.11 Minor Bioactive Compounds

469

(3)

11.11.1 Polyamines

469

(1)

11.11.2 Amyloid A

470

(1)

11.11.3 Nucleotides

471

(1)

11.11.4 Calmodulin-Inhibiting Peptide

471

(1)

11.11.5 Cluster of Differentiation 14 (CD14)

471

(1)

11.11.6 Cysteine Protease Inhibitors

472

(1)

11.11.7 Antioxidants and Prooxidants

472

(1)

11.12 Effect of Processing Conditions on Bioactive Components in Milk

472

(2)

11.13 Commercial Production and Uses of Bioactive Compounds from Milk

474

(2)

11.14 Bioactive Components in Other Milks

476

(1)

11.15 Conclusion

477

(22)

References

478

(19)

Suggested Reading

497

(2)

12 Chemistry and Biochemistry of Cheese

499

(48)

12.1 Introduction

499

(2)

12.2 Rennet-Coagulated Cheeses

501

(36)

12.2.1 Preparation and Treatment of Cheese Milk

501

(1)

12.2.2 Conversion of Milk to Cheese Curd

502

(16)

12.2.3 Acidification

518

(3)

12.2.4 Moulding and Shaping

521

(1)

12.2.5 Salting

521

(1)

12.2.6 Manufacturing Protocols for Some Cheese Varieties

522

(1)

12.2.7 Cheese Ripening

523

(10)

12.2.8 Cheese Flavour

533

(1)

12.2.9 Accelerated Ripening of Cheese

534

(3)

12.3 Acid-Coagulated Cheeses

537

(1)

12.4 Processed Cheese Products

537

(6)

12.4.1 Processing Protocol

541

(2)

12.5 Cheese Analogues

543

(4)

References

544

(1)

Suggested Reading

545

(2)

13 Chemistry and Biochemistry of Fermented Milk Products

547

(22)

13.1 Introduction

547

(6)

13.1.1 Classification of Fermented Milks

548

(2)

13.1.2 Therapeutic Properties of Fermented Milks

550

(3)

13.2 Starter Microorganisms

553

(1)

13.3 Buttermilk

554

(1)

13.4 Yoghurt

555

(3)

13.4.1 Concentrated Fermented Milk Products

555

(2)

13.4.2 Novel Yoghurt Products

557

(1)

13.4.3 Rheology of Yoghurt

557

(1)

13.4.4 Exocellular Polysaccharides

557

(1)

13.5 Kefir

558

(3)

13.6 Koumiss

561

(5)

13.6.1 Technological Developments in Koumiss Manufacture

564

(1)

13.6.2 Koumiss-Like Products from Non-equine Milk

565

(1)

13.7 Cultured/Sour Cream

566

(3)

References

566

(1)

Suggested Reading

567

(2)

Index

569

P. F. Fox, Emeritus Professor of Food Chemistry.

T. Uniacke-Lowe, Senior Technical Officer.

P. L. H. McSweeney, Professor of Food Chemistry.

J. A. O Mahony, Lecturer in Food Chemistry, all at the School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College, Cork, Ireland.

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E-grāmata: Dairy Chemistry and Biochemistry

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