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E-grāmata: Decontamination of Heavy Metals: Processes, Mechanisms, and Applications [Taylor & Francis e-book]

(National University of Singapore, Singapore)
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Heavy metals, such as lead, chromium, cadmium, zinc, copper, and nickel, are important constituents of most living organisms, as well as many nonliving substances. Some heavy metals are essential for growth of biological and microbiological lives, yet their presence in excessive quantities is harmful to humans and interferes with many environmental processes. Heavy metals are also nonbiodegradable, making them more difficult to remediate. Decontamination of Heavy Metals: Processes, Mechanisms, and Applications tackles the subject of heavy metals in the environment, with special emphasis on their treatment, removal, recovery, disposal, management, and modeling.

Concepts, Cutting-Edge Technologies, and Applications

The book provides in-depth coverage of the major hazardous heavy metals that are found in water, land, and facilities and that have significant effects on public health and the environment. After an overview of heavy metal contamination, the text reviews the concepts and technologies of pollution prevention. It then examines technologies for metal decontamination, ranging from precipitationwhich is the most commonly usedto cutting-edge technologies such as precipitation-crystallization, ion exchange, membrane filtration, and electrolysis. Mathematical models for metal removal and recovery are also included.

Develop a Feasible Total Heavy Metal Control Program

Complementing other books in the Advances in Industrial and Hazardous Wastes Treatment series, this volume presents important research related to the remediation of heavy metals. Extensive references are included for readers who want to trace, duplicate, or improve on a specific industrial hazardous waste treatment practice. A comprehensive handbook for environmental professionals, researchers, and students, it provides technical information to help readers develop a feasible total metal control program that can benefit both industry and local municipalities.
Preface xv
Author xvii
1 Occurrence and Importance of Heavy Metal Contamination
1(28)
1.1 Introduction
1(2)
1.2 Economy and Metals
3(2)
1.3 Environmental Importance
5(5)
1.3.1 Essential Light Metals
6(1)
1.3.2 Essential Heavy Metals
7(1)
1.3.3 Toxic Heavy Metals
8(2)
1.4 Toxicity of Heavy Metals
10(1)
1.5 Guidelines and Standards for Heavy Metals in Drinking Water
10(3)
1.6 Sources of Heavy Metal Contamination
13(2)
1.6.1 Natural Sources
13(1)
1.6.2 Industrial Sources
14(1)
1.6.3 Domestic Sources
15(1)
1.6.4 Atmospheric Sources
15(1)
1.7 Important Heavy Metals
15(11)
1.7.1 Arsenic
15(3)
1.7.2 Cadmium
18(1)
1.7.3 Chromium
19(2)
1.7.4 Copper
21(1)
1.7.5 Lead
22(2)
1.7.6 Mercury
24(1)
1.7.7 Molybdenum
25(1)
1.7.8 Nickel
25(1)
1.7.9 Selenium
26(1)
1.7.10 Silver
26(1)
1.7.11 Zinc
26(1)
References
26(3)
2 Pollution Prevention: Principles and Applications
29(24)
2.1 Introduction
29(2)
2.2 Motivation and Concept of P2
31(2)
2.2.1 Motivation
31(1)
2.2.2 Principles
32(1)
2.2.3 Concepts
32(1)
2.3 P2 Laws and Regulations
33(5)
2.4 P2 Technologies
38(1)
2.5 P2 Benefits
39(1)
2.6 Pollution Prevention Feasibility
40(4)
2.6.1 Technical Feasibility
40(1)
2.6.2 Environmental Feasibility
41(2)
2.6.3 Economic Feasibility
43(1)
2.7 P2 Implementation and Revision
44(1)
2.7.1 Project Implementation
44(1)
2.7.2 Review and Revision of Project
45(1)
2.8 Key Points in P2 Applications
45(5)
2.8.1 Material Handling and Storage
45(1)
2.8.2 Process Modification
46(1)
2.8.2.1 Process Variable Controls
46(1)
2.8.2.2 Replacement with Cleaning Processes
46(1)
2.8.2.3 Chemical Catalysts
47(1)
2.8.2.4 Segregation and Separation
47(1)
2.8.3 In-Process Recycling
47(1)
2.8.4 Materials and Product Substitutions
48(1)
2.8.4.1 Materials Substitution
48(1)
2.8.4.2 Product Substitution
48(1)
2.8.5 Materials Separation
49(1)
2.9 Case Studies
50(1)
2.9.1 33/50 Program
50(1)
2.9.2 Water Reduction in Pulp Mill
50(1)
2.9.3 P2 Plan in LBNL
50(1)
References
51(2)
3 Precipitation Technology
53(42)
3.1 Introduction
53(1)
3.2 Theory
54(20)
3.2.1 Calculation of Precipitation Reaction
54(9)
3.2.2 Typical Treatment Reagents
63(1)
3.2.2.1 Hydroxide
63(1)
3.2.2.2 Carbonate
64(1)
3.2.2.3 Sulfide
65(2)
3.2.3 Important Operational Parameters
67(3)
3.2.4 Treatability of Individual Metals
70(1)
3.2.4.1 Arsenic
70(2)
3.2.4.2 Cadmium
72(1)
3.2.4.3 Chromium
73(1)
3.2.4.4 Copper
74(1)
3.2.4.5 Nickel
74(1)
3.2.4.6 Mercury
74(1)
3.2.4.7 Lead
74(1)
3.3 Pretreatment
74(1)
3.4 Posttreatment
75(1)
3.5 Key Devices in Pre- and Posttreatment Steps
75(10)
3.5.1 Coagulation and Flocculation
75(1)
3.5.2 Sedimentation
76(5)
3.5.3 Filtration
81(1)
3.5.4 Dissolved Air Flotation
82(1)
3.5.5 Sludge Thickening and Dewatering
82(2)
3.5.5.1 Pressure Filter
84(1)
3.5.5.2 Vacuum Filter
84(1)
3.5.5.3 Compression Filter
85(1)
3.5.5.4 Centrifuge Device
85(1)
3.6 Case Studies
85(6)
3.6.1 Treatment of Heavy Metals in Wastewater from Electroplating Operation
85(2)
3.6.2 Metal Removal by Insoluble Sulfide Precipitation
87(1)
3.6.3 Hybrid System for Metal Removal
88(1)
3.6.4 Segregated Treatment of Difficult-To-Treat Metal
89(1)
3.6.5 Treatment of Arsenic by Precipitation-Coagulation
90(1)
3.7 Limitations and Solutions
91(2)
3.7.1 Presence of Chelating Agents
91(1)
3.7.2 Production of Solids
92(1)
3.7.3 Importance of Process Control
93(1)
References
93(2)
4 Precipitation-Crystallization Technology
95(30)
4.1 Introduction
95(1)
4.2 Description of Technology
96(1)
4.3 Theoretical Background
97(4)
4.3.1 Surface Precipitation
97(1)
4.3.2 Crystallization Kinetics
98(2)
4.3.2.1 Crystal Nucleation
100(1)
4.3.2.2 Crystal Growth
100(1)
4.3.2.3 Secondary Changes
100(1)
4.3.3 Degree of Crystal Dispersion
101(1)
4.4 Important Control Factors
101(11)
4.4.1 Total Carbon Concentration versus Metal Concentration
103(1)
4.4.2 Start-Up of the System
103(2)
4.4.3 Recycle Ratio and Hydraulic Loading
105(2)
4.4.4 pH Effect
107(1)
4.4.5 Lead Loading and Supersaturation
107(1)
4.4.6 Bed Height
108(2)
4.4.7 Properties of Sand Grains and Suspended Solids
110(1)
4.4.7.1 Metal Contents on Sand Grains
111(1)
4.4.7.2 Microscopic Examination of Lead-Coated Sand Grains
111(1)
4.4.7.3 Suspended Solids in FBR
111(1)
4.5 Case Studies
112(11)
4.5.1 Recovery of Silver
112(1)
4.5.2 Recovery of Ni-Bearing Electroplating Wastewater
112(1)
4.5.3 Removal of Iron from Acid Mine Drainage
112(1)
4.5.4 Removal of Multispecies Heavy Metals
113(3)
4.5.5 Removal of Phosphate
116(1)
4.5.6 Copper Removal and Recovery
117(1)
4.5.7 Fluoride Removal and Recovery
118(2)
4.5.8 Arsenic Removal
120(3)
References
123(2)
5 Reduction-Oxidation Processes
125(90)
5.1 Introduction
125(15)
5.2 Chemical-Induced Reduction Processes
140(16)
5.2.1 Sodium Borohydride
140(1)
5.2.2 Hydrazine
141(2)
5.2.2.1 Effect of pH
143(4)
5.2.2.2 Effect of Humic Acid
147(1)
5.2.2.3 Effect of DO
148(1)
5.2.2.4 Competition in Metal Reduction
149(1)
5.2.2.5 Effect of Seeding and Aging Process
150(3)
5.2.3 HCHO
153(1)
5.2.4 Iron
153(2)
5.2.5 Other Reducing Reagents
155(1)
5.3 Biological Reduction of Metal Sulfate
156(19)
5.3.1 Importance of Sulfate Removal
156(1)
5.3.2 Mechanisms and Controlling Factors
157(5)
5.3.2.1 Thermodynamics
162(3)
5.3.2.2 Type of Electron Donors
165(7)
5.3.2.3 Kinetics
172(1)
5.3.3 Bioreactors
172(3)
5.4 Reduction of Hexavalent Chromium
175(25)
5.4.1 Solution Chemistry of Chromium
175(1)
5.4.1.1 Hexavalent Chromium
175(1)
5.4.1.2 Trivalent Chromium
176(1)
5.4.2 Activated Sludge Process
176(2)
5.4.3 Membrane Bioreactor
178(1)
5.4.3.1 Effect of Metal on Membrane Flux
179(2)
5.4.3.2 Effect of Metal on Sludge Production
181(1)
5.4.3.3 Effect of Metal on Carbonaceous Pollutant Removal
181(3)
5.4.3.4 Effect of Metal on Removal of Nutrient
184(8)
5.4.4 Inactive Biomass
192(8)
5.5 Reduction and Oxidation of Arsenic Species
200(8)
5.5.1 Oxidation
200(1)
5.5.1.1 Chemical Oxidation
201(2)
5.5.1.2 Catalytic Oxidation
203(3)
5.5.1.3 Biological Oxidation
206(1)
5.5.2 Reduction
207(1)
References
208(7)
6 Electrochemical Technologies for Heavy Metal Decontamination
215(40)
6.1 Introduction
215(1)
6.2 Electrodeposition Technology
216(16)
6.2.1 Typical Reaction at Electrodes
216(1)
6.2.1.1 Reduction Reactions at Cathode
216(1)
6.2.1.2 Oxidation Reactions at Anode
217(1)
6.2.2 Factors Affecting Electrodeposition
217(1)
6.2.2.1 Effect of Initial Concentration
218(2)
6.2.2.2 Effect of Distance between Electrodes
220(1)
6.2.2.3 Effect of Mixing
220(1)
6.2.2.4 Effect of HA
220(3)
6.2.2.5 Effect of EDTA
223(2)
6.2.2.6 Effect of Ionic Strength
225(2)
6.2.3 Recovery of Multicomponent Metal Ions
227(3)
6.2.4 Industrial Application
230(2)
6.3 Electrocoagulation and Electroflotation
232(19)
6.3.1 Electrocoagulation
232(1)
6.3.1.1 Conventional Coagulation
232(1)
6.3.1.2 Definition of EC
233(1)
6.3.1.3 Typical Electrode Connection
233(1)
6.3.1.4 Electrode Reactions
234(1)
6.3.1.5 Factors Influencing EC
234(1)
6.3.2 Electroflotation
235(1)
6.3.2.1 Selection of Electrodes
236(1)
6.3.2.2 Typical EF Cell
236(1)
6.3.2.3 Factors Affecting EF
237(1)
6.3.3 Combination of EC and EF
237(1)
6.3.3.1 Introduction
237(1)
6.3.3.2 Electrodes
238(1)
6.3.3.3 Cell Arrangements
239(2)
6.3.4 Case Studies
241(1)
6.3.4.1 Copper Removal
241(1)
6.3.4.2 Zinc Removal
242(3)
6.3.4.3 Chromium Removal
245(3)
6.3.4.4 Cadmium Removal
248(1)
6.3.4.5 Removal of Heavy Metals from Saline Leachate
248(1)
6.3.4.6 Nickel and Zinc Removal
248(1)
6.3.4.7 Arsenic Removal
249(1)
6.3.4.8 A Hybrid EC/EF-Membrane Process
249(2)
References
251(4)
7 Adsorption: Materials, Chemistry, and Applications
255(98)
7.1 Introduction
255(2)
7.2 Activated Carbon
257(46)
7.2.1 Surface Properties
257(4)
7.2.2 Effect of pH
261(2)
7.2.3 Types of Metal Ions
263(2)
7.2.4 Effect of Ionic Strength
265(2)
7.2.5 Effect of Background Electrolyte
267(1)
7.2.6 Effect of Initial Concentration and Dosage
268(1)
7.2.7 Adsorption Isotherm
269(1)
7.2.8 Presence of Industrial Organic Matters
269(9)
7.2.9 Effect of Natural Organic Matters
278(8)
7.2.10 Effect of Surfactant
286(5)
7.2.11 Effect of Competing Ions
291(2)
7.2.12 Temperature Effect
293(1)
7.2.13 Effect of Carbon Type
294(1)
7.2.14 Modification of Activated Carbon
295(1)
7.2.14.1 Chemical Approaches
296(1)
7.2.14.2 Physical Approaches
296(1)
7.2.14.3 Metal Performance of Modified Activated Carbons
297(6)
7.3 Biosorbents
303(25)
7.3.1 Preparation of Biosorbents
303(10)
7.3.2 Biosorption Chemistry
313(2)
7.3.3 Biosorption Performance
315(13)
7.4 Metal Oxide
328(10)
7.5 Adsorption Treatment System
338(3)
7.5.1 Fluidized Bed Reactor
338(1)
7.5.2 Stirred Tank Reactor
338(1)
7.5.3 Fixed-Bed Reactor
339(2)
References
341(12)
8 Calculation of Metal Ion Uptake in Environmental Systems
353(50)
8.1 Sorption Reaction
353(16)
8.1.1 Langmuir Equation
354(7)
8.1.2 Freundlich Equation
361(1)
8.1.3 Sips Model
362(1)
8.1.4 Dubinin-Raduskevich Adsorption Model
362(1)
8.1.5 Redlich-Peterson Model
363(1)
8.1.6 Toth Model
363(1)
8.1.7 Multicomponent Isotherms
364(1)
8.1.8 Surface Complex Formation Model
365(1)
8.1.8.1 Model Description
365(2)
8.1.8.2 Surface Complex Formation Reactions
367(2)
8.2 Ion Exchange
369(7)
8.3 Hybrid Model
376(2)
8.3.1 Metal Uptake by Biosorbent
376(1)
8.3.2 Metal Uptake by Composite Sorbent
377(1)
8.4 Equilibrium Calculation by Computational Tools
378(4)
8.4.1 Introduction
378(1)
8.4.2 Mathematical Description
379(2)
8.4.3 Determination of Model Parameters
381(1)
8.5 Case Studies of Adsorption Equilibrium
382(16)
8.5.1 Heavy Metal Adsorption onto Activated Carbon
382(1)
8.5.1.1 Surface Charge Properties
382(4)
8.5.1.2 Adsorption of Heavy Metals
386(3)
8.5.1.3 Multiple-Species Metal Ion Adsorption
389(2)
8.5.2 Heavy Metal Sorption onto a Calcium-Alginate Encapsulated Magnetic Sorbent
391(3)
8.5.2.1 Interaction of Functional Groups, Calcium, and Hydrogen Ions
394(3)
8.5.2.2 Interaction of Functional Groups and Heavy Metal Ions
397(1)
8.5.2.3 Prediction of pH Effect
397(1)
8.6 Modeling of Adsorption Kinetics
398(5)
8.6.1 Surface Diffusion Control Model
399(1)
8.6.2 Pore Diffusion Control Model
400(3)
Appendix A Introduction of MINEQL Modeling 403(3)
Appendix B Empirical Kinetics Model 406(11)
Appendix C Surface Diffusion Model 417(2)
References 419(6)
Index 425
Dr. J. Paul Chen is an associate professor of environmental engineering at the National University of Singapore. His research interests are physicochemical treatment of water and wastewater and modeling. He has published more than 100 journal papers and book chapters with a citation count of more than 2,500 and an H-index of 28. Professor Chen is also the co-editor of Heavy Metals in the Environment (CRC Press, 2009). He holds seven patents in the areas of sorption technologies, ballast water management, and exhaust gas treatment. Professor Chen has received various honors and awards, including guest professor of the Hua Zhong University of Science and Technology and Shandong University of China, and Distinguished Overseas Chinese Young Scholar of National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has been recognized as an author of highly cited papers (chemistry and engineering) of ISI Web of Knowledge. Professor Chen received his masters in engineering from the Tsinghua University of Beijing and his Ph.D. from the Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta.
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