Effective Crisis Communication: Moving From Crisis to Opportunity [Hardback]

PART I: THE LESSONS
Chapter 1. Defining Crisis Communication		3	(14)
A Definition of Crisis Communication		5	(2)
Surprise		6	(1)
Threat		6	(1)
Short Response Time		7	(1)
A Working Definition		7	(1)
Crisis and Risk		8	(1)
Types of Crises		9	(4)
Intentional Crises		9	(2)
Unintentional Crises		11	(2)
Consistent Communication Demands of Crisis Situations		13	(1)
The Significance of Crisis in a Global Environment		14	(1)
Summary		15	(1)
References		15	(2)
Chapter 2. Lessons on Managing Crisis Uncertainty		17	(16)
Defining Uncertainty		18	(1)
Unexpected Crises and Uncertainty		18	(1)
Nonroutine Crisis Events and Uncertainty		19	(1)
Threat Perception and Uncertainty		19	(1)
Short Response Time and Uncertainty		20	(2)
The Impact of Crisis-Induced Uncertainty on Stakeholders		22	(1)
Managing Communication Ambiguity Ethically During Crisis		23	(2)
Consistent Questions of Ambiguity		25	(2)
Training, Simulations, and Uncertainty		27	(2)
Belief Structures and Uncertainty		29	(1)
Summary		30	(1)
Lessons on Uncertainty and Crisis Communication		30	(1)
References		31	(2)
Chapter 3. Lessons on Effective Crisis Communication		33	(16)
Determining Your Goals		34	(1)
Partnering With Crisis Audiences		34	(2)
Understanding the Diversity of Your Audiences		36	(1)
Primary and Secondary Stakeholders Defined		37	(1)
A Word on Partnerships and Listening		38	(2)
What Information Do Stakeholders Need Following a Crisis?		40	(2)
Communicate Early and Often With Both Internal and External Stakeholders		40	(1)
Identifying the Cause of the Crisis		41	(1)
Contacting Everyone Affected by the Crisis		41	(1)
Determining Current and Future Risks		42	(1)
Is Certain Communication Always the Best Approach?		42	(1)
Be Careful of Overreassuring Your Stakeholders		43	(1)
Tell Your Stakeholders How to Protect Themselves		44	(1)
The Power of Positive Thinking		45	(1)
Summary		46	(1)
Lessons on Communicating Effectively in Crisis Situations		47	(1)
References		47	(2)
Chapter 4. Lessons on Effective Crisis Leadership		49	(16)
The Importance of Effective Leadership		50	(6)
Why Visibility Following a Crisis Is Important		56
Developing Networks of Support		51	(1)
Being Available, Open, and Honest		52	(1)
The Impact of Leadership on Renewal Following a Crisis		53	(1)
Ineffective Leadership During a Crisis		53	(1)
What Makes a Leader?		54	(2)
Leadership Styles		55	(1)
Contingency Approach to Leadership		56	(1)
Leadership Virtues		56	(1)
Managing Uncertainty, Responding, Resolving, and Learning From Crisis		57	(1)
Suggestions for the Leader as Spokesperson		57	(4)
Summary		61	(1)
Lessons on Effective Crisis Leadership		61	(1)
References		62	(3)
PART II: APPLYING THE LESSONS
Chapter 5. Examples of Success and Failure in Industrial Accidents		65	(18)
Lessons on Uncertainty: Exxon and the Valdez Oil Tanker Grounding		66	(6)
Disagreements About Crisis Preparation and Planning		66	(2)
Exxon's Response to an Uncertain Crisis		68	(1)
Understanding the Science of the Valdez Oil Spill: The Quest for $100 Million		69	(1)
You Make the Call		70	(1)
Managing Uncertainty in Industrial Accidents: Lessons on Uncertainty and Crisis Communication		70	(1)
Summary		71	(1)
Lessons on Effective Crisis Communication: A Plant Fire at Malden Mills		72	(5)
Crisis Preparation and Planning		73	(1)
Courageous Communication in the Wake of a Disaster		73	(1)
You Make the Call		74	(1)
Communication Effectiveness and Ineffectiveness in Industrial Accidents: Lessons on Communicating Effectively in Crisis Situations		75	(1)
Summary		76	(1)
Lessons on Leadership: A Fire at Cole Hardwoods		77	(3)
Crisis Planning and Preparation		77	(1)
Leading Instinctively After a Disaster		78	(1)
You Make the Call		78	(1)
Leadership Successes and Failures in Industrial Accidents: Lessons on Effective Crisis Leadership		79	(1)
Summary		80	(1)
References		80	(3)
Chapter 6. Examples of Success and Failure During Outbreaks of Food-Borne Illness		83	(18)
Lessons on Uncertainty: Jack in the Box's E. coli 0157:H7 Crisis		84	(5)
Crisis Planning and Preparation		85	(1)
Jack in the Box's Response to an Uncertain Crisis		85	(3)
You Make the Call		88	(1)
Managing Uncertainty in Food-Borne Illness Outbreaks: Lessons on Uncertainty and Crisis Communication		88	(1)
Summary		89	(1)
Lessons on Effective Crisis Communication: A Deadly Hepatitis A Outbreak at a Chi-Chi's Restaurant		89	(5)
A Complicating Factor for Chi-Chi's		91	(1)
Chi-Chi's Crisis Response		91	(2)
You Make the Call		93	(1)
Communicating Effectively and Ineffectively During Food-Borne Illness Outbreaks: Lessons on Communicating Effectively in Crisis Situations		93	(1)
Summary		94	(1)
The Largest Food-Borne Illness Outbreak in History: Schwan's Sales Enterprises		94	(6)
A Guiding Philosophy		96	(1)
Schwan's Crisis Response		97	(1)
Learning From the Crisis		98	(1)
You Make the Call		98	(1)
Leadership Successes and Failures in Food-Borne Illness Outbreaks: Lessons on Effective Crisis Leadership		98	(1)
Summary		99	(1)
References		100	(1)
Chapter 7. Examples of Success and Failure in Response to Terrorism		101	(18)
Crisis Uncertainty: The Case of 9/11		102	(5)
You Make the Call		105	(1)
Managing Uncertainty During Terrorism: Lessons on Uncertainty and Crisis Communication		105	(2)
Summary		107	(1)
Effective Crisis Communication: The Oklahoma City Bombing		107	(5)
You Make the Call		110	(1)
Communicating Effectively and Ineffectively During Terrorism: Lessons on Communicating Effectively in Crisis Situations		111	(1)
Summary		112	(1)
Effective Crisis Leadership at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention		112	(6)
Spokesperson in the SARS Case		114	(2)
You Make the Call		116	(1)
Leadership Successes and Failures in Public Health: Lessons of the Role of Leaders in Crisis Situations		116	(2)
Summary		118	(1)
References		118	(1)
Chapter 8. Examples of Success and Failure During Natural Disasters		119	(22)
1997 Red River Valley Floods		120	(5)
Predicting Floodwaters in the Red River Valley		121	(1)
Communicating to the Public About Crest Levels		122	(1)
Understanding the National Weather Service's Response to the Red River Valley Floods		122	(1)
You Make the Call		123	(1)
Managing Uncertainty in Natural Disasters: Lessons on Uncertainty and Crisis Communication		123	(2)
Summary		125	(1)
Tsunami Relief and the Red Cross		125	(7)
The Red Cross and Donations Following the Tsunami Crisis		125	(2)
Communication Following the Tsunami		127	(3)
You Make the Call		130	(1)
Communicating Effectively and Ineffectively During Natural Disasters: Lessons on Communicating Effectively in Crisis Situations		131	(1)
Summary		132	(1)
2003 San Diego County, California, Fires		132	(5)
Communicating During the Uncertainty of the California Wildfires		134	(1)
Lessons From Dealing With Crisis		135	(1)
You Make the Call		135	(1)
Leadership Successes and Failures During Natural Disasters: Lessons on Effective Crisis Leadership		135	(1)
Summary		136	(1)
References		137	(4)
PART III: THE OPPORTUNITIES
Chapter 9. Learning Through Failure		141	(12)
Failing to Learn From Failure		142	(2)
Learning From Failure		144	(2)
Vicarious Learning		146	(1)
Organizational Memory		147	(1)
Unlearning		148	(2)
Summary		150	(1)
References		151	(2)
Chapter 10. Risk Communication		153	(14)
Distinguishing Between Risk and Crisis		154	(3)
Identifying Risk		157	(2)
Mindfulness		157	(2)
Analyzing Multiple Audiences		159	(4)
Responsible Risk Communication		163	(2)
Significant Choice		163	(1)
Fantasy Messages		164	(1)
Summary		165	(1)
References		166	(1)
Chapter 11. Responding to the Ethical Demands of Crisis		167	(10)
Ethics		168	(1)
Values		169	(1)
Values and Crisis		170	(1)
Responsibility and Accountability		170	(1)
Access to Information		171	(1)
Humanism and Care		172	(2)
The Role of Values in a Crisis Response		174	(1)
Summary		175	(1)
References		175	(2)
Chapter 12. Crisis as Inspiring Renewal to a New Normal		177	(12)
Understanding Renewal: Examples and Consequences of a Different Approach to Crisis Communication		177	(1)
Examples of Renewal Following Crisis		178	(2)
Malden Mills and Cole Hardwoods		178	(1)
Cantor Fitzgerald		179	(1)
9/11		179	(1)
How to Create Opportunities for Renewal Following a Crisis		180	(2)
Opportunities for Inspiring Renewal to a New Normal		182	(1)
Turner's Six Stages of Failure of Foresight		182	(2)
Failing to View the Opportunities in Crisis		184	(1)
NASA: The Tale of an Organization Struggling With Renewal and the New Normal		184	(1)
Challenges to Renewal		185	(1)
Summary		186	(1)
References		187	(2)
Index		189	(8)
About the Authors		197

Robert R. Ulmer is professor of Communication Studies and dean of the Greenspun College of Urban Affairs at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. The Greenspun College of Urban Affairs mission is to create unique solutions to support community resiliency. His teaching, research, and advisory roles focus on producing effective risk and crisis communication through renewal, growth, and transformation. His current work involves creating transdisciplinary research solutions and engaging public/private partnerships to develop crisis-prepared and response-capable communities and organizations. Recently, the Greenspun College of Urban Affairs launched the MGM Resorts International Public Policy Institute. The Institute is bipartisan (the co-chairs are former Senator Harry Reid and former Speaker John Boehner) and focuses on creating innovative solutions to pressing national social crises. He is also involved in several research initiatives focused on tourist safety, smart cities, urban leadership, community trauma, and community resiliency.

His recent and current work is funded by MGM Resorts International, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the Environmental Protection Agency. He has worked in an advisory role both nationally and internationally for a wide variety of public and private organizations during risk and crisis events. He has served as an advisor on several large-scale oil spills, issues of homeland security and terrorism, financial crises, environmental disasters, food safety crises, and public health and community crises.

He has published articles in Management Communication Quarterly; Journal of Applied Poultry Research; Communication Yearbook; Journal of Business Ethics; Public Relations Review; Journal of Organizational Change Management; Journal of Applied Communication Research; Handbook of Crisis Communication, Argumentation, and Advocacy; Public Relations Review; Communication Studies; Handbook of Risk and Crisis Communication; Encyclopedia of Public Relations; International Handbook of Crisis Communication; Handbook of Crisis Communication; and Handbook of Public Relations.

Timothy L. Sellnow is a professor of strategic communication in the Nicholson School of Communication and Media at the University of Central Florida in Orlando. Dr. Sellnows research focuses on instructional risk and crisis communication to diverse publics, and strategic communication for crisis management and risk mitigation in government, organizational, and health settings. He has conducted funded research for the Department of Homeland Security, the United States Department of Agriculture, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Environmental Protection Agency, the United States Geological Survey, and the World Health Organization. He has also served in an advisory role for the National Academy of Sciences and the Food and Drug Administration. His work on crisis, risk, and communication has appeared in the Handbook of Crisis and Risk Communication; International Encyclopedia of Communication; Communication Yearbook; Handbook of Public Relations; Handbook of Applied Communication Research; Public Relations Review; Communication Studies; Journal of Business Ethics; Journal of Business Communication, Argumentation, and Advocacy; Critical Studies in Media Communication; Journal of Applied Communication Research; Health Communication; Journal of Health Communication; Risk Analysis; Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management; and Management Communication Quarterly. Dr. Sellnow is the coauthor of six books and coeditor of two books on crisis and risk communication, and he is the past editor of the Journal of Applied Communication Research and past recipient of the National Communication Associations Gerald M. Phillips Award for Distinguished Applied Communication Scholarship.

Matthew W. Seeger is currently professor of communication and co-director of the Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases at Wayne State University. Dr. Seegers research concerns crisis and risk communication, health promotion and communication, crisis response and agency coordination, the role of mediaincluding new mediacrisis and communication ethics, failure of complex systems, and post-crisis resilience and renewal.

He has worked with the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention for more than a decade. He is a member of the World Health Organization Guidelines Development Group for Emergency Risk Communication. He has consulted with several Fortune 500 firms on crisis management planning and response. His work has been supported by the CDC, NCFPD, NSF, NIH, and the State of Michigan, with over $7 million in extramural funding.

His work on crisis, risk, and communication has appeared in more than 100 peer reviewed articles and book chapters including the Handbook of Crisis and Risk Communication, International Encyclopedia of Communication, Journal of Health Communication Research, Health Promotion Practice, Communication Monographs, International Journal of Crisis and Contingency Management, Communication Yearbook, the Handbook of Public Relations, Handbook of Applied Communication Research, Communication Monographs, Public Relations Review, Communication Studies,  Journal of Business Ethics, Journal of Business Communication, Management Communication Quarterly, Journal of Applied Communication Research, and the Journal of Organizational Change Management, among several others. Seeger is the author or coauthor of eight books, most focusing on crisis and risk communication, including Communication and Organizational Crisis (2003), Crisis Communication and the Public Health (2008), Effective Crisis Communication (2007), Effective Risk Communication (2009), Theorizing Crisis Communication (2021), Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication (Second Edition, 2015), Narratives of Crisis: Stories of Ruin and Renewal (2016), and the International Handbook of Crisis Communication (2016). He has advised over 40 doctoral dissertations.