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E-grāmata: Fire Science: From Chemistry to Landscape Management

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Fire Science: From Chemistry to Landscape ManagementPalielināt
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This textbook provides students and academics with a conceptual understanding of fire behavior and fire effects on people and ecosystems to support effective integrated fire management. Through case studies, interactive spreadsheets programmed with equations and graphics, and clear explanations, the book provides undergraduate, graduate, and professional readers with a straightforward learning path. The authors draw from years of experience in successfully teaching fundamental concepts and applications, synthesizing cutting-edge science, and applying lessons learned from fire practitioners.





We discuss fire as part of environmental and human health. Our process-based, comprehensive, and quantitative approach encompasses combustion and heat transfer, and fire effects on people, plants, soils, and animals in forest, grassland, and woodland ecosystems from around the Earth. Case studies and examples link fundamental concepts to local, landscape, and global fire implications, including social-ecological systems. Globally, fire science and integrated fire management have made major strides in the last few decades. Society faces numerous fire-related challenges, including the increasing occurrence of large fires that threaten people and property, smoke that poses a health hazard, and lengthening fire seasons worldwide. Fires are useful to suppress fires, conserve wildlife and habitat, enhance livestock grazing, manage fuels, and in ecological restoration. Understanding fire science is critical to forecasting the implication of global change for fires and their effects. Increasing the positive effects of fire (fuels reduction, enhanced habitat for many plants and animals, ecosystem services increased) while reducing the negative impacts of fires (loss of human lives, smoke and carbon emissions that threaten health, etc.) is part of making fires good servants rather than bad masters.
Part I Combustion and Heat Transfer Processes
1 Chemical Conditions for Ignition
7(12)
1.1 What Conditions Are Required for Ignition?
7(1)
1.2 Ignitability and Flammability
8(1)
1.3 Ignitability Limits
9(4)
1.4 Mixing Between Fuel Gases and Air
13(1)
1.5 Ignitability of Wildland Fuels
14(2)
1.6 Implications
16(1)
References
17(2)
2 From Fuels to Smoke: Chemical Processes
19(20)
2.1 Introduction
19(1)
2.2 Combustion at the Level of Atoms and Molecules
20(3)
2.3 Combustion of Solid Fuels
23(2)
2.4 Combustion Completeness and Emission Factors
25(7)
2.5 From Emissions to Smoke Composition
32(2)
2.6 Implications
34(1)
2.7 Interactive Spreadsheet: COMBUSTION
35(1)
References
36(3)
3 Heat Production
39(24)
3.1 Heat Production
39(1)
3.2 The Net Energy Release in Combustion and the Strength of Chemical Bonds
40(7)
3.3 Energy Release and Heat of Combustion
47(3)
3.4 Estimating Heat Release from Fuel Composition
50(5)
3.5 Estimating Heat Yield
55(3)
3.6 Implications
58(2)
3.7 Interactive Spreadsheet: COMBUSTION
60(1)
References
61(2)
4 Heat for Pre-ignition and Flames
63(16)
4.1 Introduction
63(1)
4.2 From Heat Supply to Temperature Rise: Specific Heat Capacity
64(2)
4.3 From Heat Supply to Phase Changes: Latent Heat of Vaporization
66(1)
4.4 Evaluating the Heat of Pre-ignition for Wildland Fuels
67(4)
4.4.1 Estimating the Main Components of the Heat of Pre-ignition
68(1)
4.4.2 Combining the Components of the Heat of Pre-ignition of the Fuel
69(2)
4.5 Flame Temperatures
71(4)
4.6 Implications
75(1)
4.7 Interactive Spreadsheet: COMBUSTION
75(1)
References
76(3)
5 Heat Transfer
79(22)
5.1 Introduction
79(1)
5.2 Modes of Heat Transfer
80(3)
5.3 Radiation
83(5)
5.4 Conduction
88(4)
5.5 Convection and Solid Mass Transport
92(1)
5.6 Implications
93(1)
5.7 Interactive Spreadsheets: RADIATION Fireline Safety, CONVECTION, CONDUCTION Soils Plants, and MASS TRANSFER Spotting
94(1)
References
95(6)
Part II Fuels, Fire Behavior and Effects
6 Fuel and Fire Behavior Description
101(14)
6.1 Introduction
101(1)
6.2 The Wildland Fuel Hierarchy
102(2)
6.3 Fuel Description
104(2)
6.4 Fire Description
106(6)
6.5 Implications
112(1)
References
113(2)
7 Fire Propagation
115(60)
7.1 Introduction
115(1)
7.2 Initial Fire Growth
116(9)
7.2.1 Models of Acceleration of Fire Fronts
119(4)
7.2.2 The Practical Use of Understanding Initial Fire Growth
123(2)
7.3 The Steady-State Spread Rate of a Fireline
125(31)
7.3.1 Heat Balance and Fire Spread
126(2)
7.3.2 Estimating Fire Spread
128(5)
7.3.3 The Effects of Wind and Slope on Fire Spread
133(13)
7.3.4 The Effect of Physical Fuel Properties on Fire Spread
146(2)
7.3.5 The Effect of Fuel Moisture on Fire Spread
148(8)
7.4 Spatial and Temporal Variability of Fire Spread
156(8)
7.4.1 Spatial Variability in Fuels or Topography in the Landscape
156(3)
7.4.2 Integrating the Variability of Weather, Fuel, and Topography in Fire Spread Prediction
159(5)
7.5 Limitations, Implications, and Applications
164(3)
7.6 Interactive Spreadsheets: FIRE GROWTH, FIRE RATE OF SPREAD, and WTND PROFILE
167(2)
References
169(6)
8 Extreme Fires
175(84)
8.1 Introduction: Extreme Fires
175(3)
8.2 Extreme Fire Characteristics
178(9)
8.2.1 Extreme Fire Size: The Statistical Approach
178(4)
8.2.2 Extreme Fire Behavior: The Resistance to Control Approach, Features, and Drivers
182(5)
8.3 Crown Fires
187(16)
8.3.1 Crown Fire Initiation
189(6)
8.3.2 The Conditions for Active Crown Fire Spread
195(5)
8.3.3 Crown Fire Rate of Spread
200(3)
8.4 Spotting
203(23)
8.4.1 Buoyancy and the Fire Plume
205(8)
8.4.2 Firebrand Generation
213(1)
8.4.3 Lofting of Firebrands
214(6)
8.4.4 The Transport and Fall of Firebrands: Searching for the Maximum Spotting Distance
220(1)
8.4.5 The New Ignitions from Firebrands
221(2)
8.4.6 The "Optimal" Firebrand for Long-Range Spotting
223(3)
8.5 Complex Fire-Atmosphere Interactions
226(9)
8.5.1 The Relative Strength of Buoyancy and Wind
226(1)
8.5.2 Downdrafts Associated with Firestorms
227(2)
8.5.3 Complex Interactions Between the Environment and Fire, and Between Fires
229(3)
8.5.4 Other Hypotheses for Unexpected Fire Behavior
232(3)
8.6 Anticipating and Predicting Extreme Fire Behavior
235(9)
8.6.1 Predictions on a Daily Basis: Fire Danger Rating
235(4)
8.6.2 Predictions on an Hourly Basis
239(1)
8.6.3 Forecasting Conditions for Blowup Fires
240(4)
8.7 Limitations and Implications
244(2)
8.8 Interactive Spreadsheets: CROWNFIRE and MASS TRANSFER Spotting
246(2)
References
248(11)
9 Fire Effects on Plants, Soils, and Animals
259(60)
9.1 Introduction
259(3)
9.2 Heat Transfer Has Implications for Plant Survival and Post-fire Response
262(7)
9.2.1 Fire Effects on Plant Crowns
264(1)
9.2.2 Fire Effects on Stems, Especially Vascular Cambium
265(1)
9.2.3 Fire Effects on Roots and Buds
266(1)
9.2.4 Heat and Smoke Effects on Seeds, Including Serotiny
267(2)
9.3 Predicting Immediate Fire Effects on Plants
269(3)
9.4 Environmental Conditions and Spatial Heterogeneity in Fire Effects Influence Plant Diversity
272(1)
9.5 Ecological Implications of Soil Heating
273(15)
9.5.1 Consequences of Soil Heating
273(5)
9.5.2 The Fate of Organic Matter Influences Soil Processes and Plant Survival
278(2)
9.5.3 Carbon, Pyrogenic Carbon, and Fires
280(3)
9.5.4 Nitrogen and Other Soil Nutrients Are Affected by Soil Heating
283(4)
9.5.5 Hydrophobic Soils
287(1)
9.6 Bum Severity
288(7)
9.7 Fire Effects on Animals
295(5)
9.8 Implications and Management
300(9)
9.8.1 Vegetation Trajectories
302(3)
9.8.2 Post-fire Soil and Vegetation Treatments
305(2)
9.8.3 How Much High Severity Fire Is Natural or Desirable?
307(2)
9.9 Conclusions
309(1)
9.10 Interactive Spreadsheet: CONDUCTTON Soils Plants
309(1)
References
310(9)
10 Fire and People
319(44)
10.1 Introduction
319(1)
10.2 Different Perspectives About Fire
320(9)
10.2.1 Fire as a Disaster and Change Agent: Vulnerability, and Resilience
321(2)
10.2.2 The Economic Perspective: Costs of Pre-suppression, Suppression, and Net Value Changes
323(3)
10.2.3 The Environmental Perspective: Focusing on Ecosystem Services
326(1)
10.2.4 An Integrated Fire Risk Framework
327(2)
10.3 Protecting People from Fires
329(11)
10.3.1 Fire and Skin
330(1)
10.3.2 Safe Distances from Fires for Fire Personnel and Others
331(4)
10.3.3 Protecting Peoples' Homes
335(5)
10.4 Smoke Can Compromise Human Health
340(6)
10.4.1 Smoke from Prescribed Fires and Wildfires
342(1)
10.4.2 Smoke Management
343(2)
10.4.3 Future Opportunities and Challenges
345(1)
10.5 Communities Becoming Fire-Adapted
346(4)
10.5.1 Learning Together Through Collaboration
348(1)
10.5.2 Learning from Traditional Practices and Scientific Knowledge
349(1)
10.6 Implications and Management Considerations
350(2)
10.7 Interactive Spreadsheet: RADIATION Fireline Safety
352(1)
References
353(10)
Part III Managing Fuels, Fires, and Landscapes
11 Fuel Dynamics and Management
363(58)
11.1 Introduction
363(11)
11.1.1 Dynamics of Fuel Load and Structure
364(3)
11.1.2 Disturbances, Fuels, and Fire
367(3)
11.1.3 Modeling Fuel Accumulation
370(3)
11.1.4 Fuel Dynamics and Plant Life Cycle
373(1)
11.2 Fuel Moisture Dynamics
374(13)
11.2.1 Dead Fuel Moisture
376(6)
11.2.2 Live Fuel Moisture
382(5)
11.3 Fuels Management
387(19)
11.3.1 Fuels Management Strategies
387(3)
11.3.2 Fuel Reduction Principles and Techniques
390(4)
Case Study 11.1 Mastication as a Fuels Treatment
394(3)
Penelope Morgan
11.3.3 Fuels Treatment Effectiveness
397(3)
11.3.4 Decision Support and Optimization
400(6)
11.4 Implications
406(2)
11.5 Interactive Spreadsheets: FUEL DYNAMICS and CROWNFIRE MITIGATION
408(1)
References
409(12)
12 Fire Regimes, Landscape Dynamics, and Landscape Management
421(88)
12.1 Introduction
421(2)
12.2 Fire Regime Descriptors
423(15)
12.2.1 Temporal Fire Regime Descriptors and Metrics
424(5)
12.2.2 Spatial Fire Regime Descriptors and Metrics
429(3)
12.2.3 Magnitude
432(2)
12.2.4 Perspective on Fire Regimes
434(4)
12.3 Data Sources for Describing Fire Regimes
438(18)
12.3.1 Tree Rings
440(5)
12.3.2 Charcoal and Pollen from Sediments
445(2)
12.3.3 Historical Documents
447(2)
12.3.4 Remote Sensing
449(5)
12.3.5 Simulating Fire Regimes
454(1)
12.3.6 Combining Methods to Characterize Past, Present, and Possible Future Fire Regimes
454(2)
12.4 Changing Fire Regimes Through Time and over Space
456(13)
12.4.1 Climate, Fuels, and People How and Where Fire Regimes Change
457(10)
12.4.2 Historical Range of Variability (HRV), Future Range of Variability (FRV), and Resilience
467(2)
Case Study 12.1 The Grass-Fire Cycle is Fueled by Invasive Species and Positive Feedback with Fire
469(5)
Penelope Morgan
12.5 Landscape Dynamics and Landscape Management
474(18)
12.5.1 Modeling Landscape Dynamics to Inform Landscape Management
477(1)
Case Study 12.2 Landscape Dynamics and Management: The Western Juniper Woodland Story
478(9)
Stephen C. Bunting
Eva K. Strand
12.5.2 Landscape Restoration, Resilience to Future Fires, and Changing Climate
487(2)
Case Study 12.3 Post-Fire Tree Regeneration in a Changing Climate
489(3)
Camille Stevens-Rumann
Penelope Morgan
12.6 Landscape Management Perspectives
492(4)
References
496(13)
13 Integrated Fire Management
509(90)
13.1 What Is Integrated Fire Management and Why Do We Need It?
509(1)
13.2 Global Success Stories
510(75)
13.2.1 Prescribed Fires Alter Wildfires
512(1)
Case Study 13.1 Managing with Fire in Forests of Southwestern Australia
512(8)
Neil D. Burrows
13.2.2 Conserving Biodiversity Using Integrated Fire Management
520(1)
Case Study 13.2 Prescribed Burning: An Integrated Management Tool Meeting Many Needs in the Pyrenees-Orientales Region in France
520(8)
Eric Rigolot
Bernard Lambert
Case Study 13.3 Integrated Fire Management in Kruger National Park
528(9)
Navashni Govender
13.2.3 Working with Partners Through Shared Stewardship and Cooperatives
537(1)
Case Study 13.4 Integrated Fire Management: Landscape Fire on the Payette National Forest in Idaho, USA
537(12)
Dustin Doane
Phil Graeve
Patrick Schon
Erin Phelps
Case Study 13.5 From Normal to Scary to Necessary: Innovations in Great Plains Fire Use
549(10)
Pete Bauman
Joe Blastick
Sean Kelly
13.2.4 Addressing Contemporary Challenges by Adapting Traditional Burning Practices
559(1)
Case Study 13.6 Contemporary Fire Management in Australia's Fire-Prone Northern Savannas
559(7)
Jeremy Russell-Smith
Brett P. Murphy
Case Study 13.7 Indigenous Cultural Burning and Fire Stewardship
566(10)
Frank K. Lake
Mary R. Huffman
Don Hankins
13.2.5 Burning in Highly Urbanized Landscapes
576(1)
Case Study 13.8 Pioneering, Progressive, and Persistent: Florida's Fire Management Is Fire Use
576(9)
Leda Kobziar
J. Morgan Varner
13.3 Applying Integrated Fire Management Effectively
585(5)
References
590(9)
14 Futuring: Trends in Fire Science and Management
599(34)
14.1 Introduction
599(3)
14.2 Global Changes Already Influence Fires and Fire Effects
602(10)
14.2.1 Climate Change: More Extreme Wildfires with More Severe Impacts
604(2)
14.2.2 Social Changes: New Challenges and Opportunities
606(3)
14.2.3 Global Change and the Australian "Black Summer" Fires
609(3)
14.3 Developing Technology and Bigger Data
612(6)
14.3.1 Increasing Resolution of Spatial, Spectral, and Temporal Data from Satellite Imagery
613(1)
14.3.2 Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)
613(1)
14.3.3 Digital Aerial Photogrammetry and Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAVs)
614(1)
14.3.4 Wireless Sensor Networks
615(1)
14.3.5 "Big Data" and Simulation
615(3)
14.4 Integrating Fire Science and Management
618(1)
14.5 Advancing Education and Training
619(3)
14.6 The Future of Fire
622(1)
References
623(10)
Index 633
Dr. Francisco Castro Rego is Professor and Researcher at the Centro de Ecologia Aplicada Prof. Baeta Neves, Instituto Superior de Agronomia in Lisbon, Portugal. He was Director of the Portuguese Forest Services and led the Fire Paradox project funded by the European Union, with 36 partners from 16 countries, that advanced fire science and fire policy. Dr. Rego's research covers landscape and fire ecology, fire behavior, and fire management (http://comparatistas.academia.edu/FranciscoRego). Dr. Rego currently leads the Parliament's commission to investigate and recommend policy changes to address recent large fires in Portugal. He is the lead author of Applied Landscape Ecology, published in 2019 by Wiley.

Dr. Penelope Morgan is an Emeritus Professor in the Department of Forest, Rangeland, and Fire Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, USA (https://www.uidaho.edu/cnr/faculty/morgan). Dr. Morgan's extensive teaching and research are in the ecological effects of wildland fires, with fire management implications. She has taught fire ecology, fire management, prescribed burning, and other topics to students who are now leading fire professionals. She is certified as Senior Fire Ecologist. She was recently recognized for Lifetime Achievement by the international Association for Fire Ecology.



Dr. Paulo Fernandes is Associate Professor in Departamento de Ciźncias Florestais e Arquitetura Paisagista and Researcher of Centro de Investigaēćo e de Tecnologias Agro-Ambientais e Biológicas at Universidade de Trįs-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal. He teaches and studies wildland fire, with a particular interest in the links between fire behavior and fire effects and the corresponding management implications (https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=VEaRO9oAAAAJ&hl=pt-PT). Dr. Fernandes has been actively involved in prescribed fire technological development and outreach. He served on the board of the International Association of Wildland Fire and on the Portuguese Parliament commissions that investigated the 2017 disaster fires in Portugal and currently monitor fire management policies and fire activity in the country.



Dr. Chad Hoffman is an Associate Professor in the Department of Forest and Rangeland Stewardship and Co-director of the Western Forest Fire Research Center at Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA. Dr. Hoffman teaches and conducts research related to wildland fire and fuel dynamics. His research lab works on questions about how interactions among fire, fuels, topography, and the atmosphere influence fire behavior and effects across spatial and temporal scales using a combination of field and laboratory experiments and process-based models (https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=EEOXuBQAAAAJ&hl).
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