Preface and Acknowledgments |
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xxi | |
About the Editors |
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xxv | |
About the Contributors |
|
xxvii | |
Part I Overview and Context |
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Chapter 1 Introduction and Overview |
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3 | (34) |
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3 | (2) |
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The Scientific Context for Legal Responses to Climate Change |
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5 | (17) |
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Global Temperatures and the Greenhouse Effect |
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5 | (4) |
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9 | (2) |
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11 | (4) |
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Environmental Impacts of Climate Change |
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15 | (2) |
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17 | (2) |
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19 | (3) |
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22 | (9) |
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22 | (2) |
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24 | (1) |
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25 | (1) |
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26 | (1) |
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Regional, State, and Local Efforts |
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27 | (3) |
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30 | (1) |
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31 | (6) |
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Chapter 2 The International Climate Regime |
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37 | (46) |
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37 | (2) |
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The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |
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39 | (3) |
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40 | (1) |
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40 | (1) |
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40 | (1) |
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41 | (1) |
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42 | (10) |
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42 | (1) |
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Overview of the Kyoto Protocol's Structure |
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43 | (1) |
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44 | (1) |
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45 | (1) |
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National Policies and Measures |
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45 | (1) |
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45 | (5) |
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50 | (1) |
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National Programs for Meeting Kyoto Commitments |
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51 | (1) |
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The Copenhagen Accord and Implementing Decisions |
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52 | (9) |
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52 | (3) |
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55 | (6) |
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The Future of the International Climate Regime |
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61 | (7) |
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The Durban Platform for Enhanced Action |
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61 | (1) |
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Architecture of a Future Agreement |
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62 | (2) |
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Legal Form of a Future Agreement |
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64 | (1) |
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64 | (2) |
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Role of Market Mechanisms |
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66 | (1) |
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The United States and the International Climate Regime |
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67 | (1) |
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68 | (1) |
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68 | (15) |
Part II U.S. Federal Regulation and Litigation |
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Chapter 3 Evolution of U.S. Climate Policy |
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83 | (34) |
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Federal Laws and Policies Concerning Scientific Research |
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83 | (6) |
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Research and Systematic Observation |
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84 | (4) |
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National Research Council Reports: America's Climate Choices |
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88 | (1) |
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Incorporation of Climate Change into Existing Laws and Policies |
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89 | (8) |
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89 | (2) |
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91 | (1) |
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National Environmental Policy Act |
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92 | (1) |
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Accounting for Social Cost of Carbon in Rulemaking |
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93 | (1) |
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Disclosure of Financial Information |
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94 | (1) |
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Federal Buildings and Operations |
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95 | (1) |
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95 | (1) |
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96 | (1) |
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Other Federal Laws and Policies |
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97 | (2) |
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National Emissions Reporting |
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97 | (1) |
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Education, Training, and Public Awareness |
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98 | (1) |
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Technological Research and Innovation |
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98 | (1) |
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99 | (1) |
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U.S. Participation in Major International Agreements |
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99 | (4) |
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Ratification of Framework Convention on Climate Change |
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99 | (2) |
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101 | (1) |
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Negotiations on Post-Kyoto Commitments |
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102 | (1) |
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New Federal Legislation to Directly Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions |
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103 | (3) |
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Congressional Action in 2009 and 2010 |
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103 | (2) |
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Subsequent Congressional and Other Proposals |
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105 | (1) |
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106 | (1) |
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107 | (10) |
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Chapter 4 Clean Air Regulation |
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117 | (36) |
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Introduction and Overview |
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117 | (1) |
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Mobile Sources Regulatioh and Implications |
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117 | (12) |
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117 | (4) |
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121 | (8) |
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Stationary Sources Regulation and Implications |
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129 | (12) |
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130 | (7) |
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New Source Performance Standards (Section 111) |
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137 | (4) |
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EPA Listing of GHGs as "Criteria" Air Pollutants and Established NAAQS |
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141 | (1) |
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Non-GHG Air Regulation Affecting Major GHG Sources |
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141 | (2) |
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142 | (1) |
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Cross-State Air Pollution Rule |
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142 | (1) |
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Title VI Stratospheric Ozone Depletion |
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143 | (1) |
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Legislative Proposals to Remove EPA CAA Authority to Regulate GHGs |
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143 | (1) |
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143 | (10) |
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Chapter 5 Environmental Impact Review |
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153 | (30) |
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153 | (1) |
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154 | (6) |
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Overview of Environmental Impact Review under NEPA |
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154 | (3) |
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NEPA's Potential to Address Climate Change |
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157 | (2) |
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CEQ Draft Guidance on NEPA Implementation and Greenhouse Gases |
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159 | (1) |
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160 | (5) |
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Cases Requiring Analysis of Climate Impacts |
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160 | (1) |
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Sufficiency of Climate Change Analysis in NEPA Documents |
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161 | (1) |
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Cases Illustrating Threshold Obstacles |
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162 | (3) |
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Little NEPA Illustration: Climate Change in the Context of the California Environmental Quality Act |
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165 | (6) |
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Climate Change in CEQA Litigation |
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166 | (2) |
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Methods for Analyzing Greenhouse Gas Impacts under CEQA |
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168 | (1) |
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Methodologies for Assessing Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Other Little NEPAs |
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169 | (2) |
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Reverse Impact Analysis: Analyzing the Impacts of Climate Change on Projects |
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171 | (3) |
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Reverse Impact Analysis under NEPA |
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171 | (1) |
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Little NEPAs: State Practice on Reverse Impact Analysis |
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172 | (2) |
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174 | (1) |
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174 | (9) |
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Chapter 6 Endangered Species Act |
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183 | (22) |
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183 | (1) |
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An Overview of the Endangered Species Act |
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184 | (4) |
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184 | (1) |
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185 | (1) |
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Section 9 and Its Exceptions |
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186 | (1) |
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Deadlines, Petitions, and Citizen Suits |
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186 | (1) |
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187 | (1) |
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187 | (1) |
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The ESA and Climate Change |
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188 | (8) |
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189 | (2) |
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191 | (3) |
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194 | (2) |
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196 | (1) |
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196 | (1) |
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196 | (9) |
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Chapter 7 Corporate Disclosure Considerations Related to Climate Change |
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205 | (34) |
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205 | (1) |
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Disclosure Obligations under U.S. Securities Laws |
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206 | (11) |
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The Legal Framework and SEC Guidance |
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206 | (7) |
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Practical Implications of the Climate Disclosure Release |
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213 | (2) |
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Sarbanes-Oxley Requirements |
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215 | (2) |
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Financial Statement Disclosure and Related Accounting Standards |
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217 | (1) |
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Sustainability Disclosure: Voluntary Reporting and Emerging Standards |
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218 | (2) |
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220 | (1) |
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EPA Mandatory Reporting Rule |
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221 | (5) |
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221 | (1) |
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222 | (2) |
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Monitoring, Records, and Verification |
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224 | (1) |
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225 | (1) |
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225 | (1) |
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226 | (4) |
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226 | (1) |
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The FTC Act and Green Guides |
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226 | (3) |
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Trends in Litigation and Enforcement |
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229 | (1) |
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230 | (9) |
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239 | (32) |
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239 | (1) |
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Public Nuisance Litigation |
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240 | (5) |
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American Electric Power v. Connecticut |
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240 | (3) |
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Native Village of Kivalina v. ExxonMobil Corp. |
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243 | (1) |
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244 | (1) |
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California v. General Motors Corp. |
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245 | (1) |
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245 | (1) |
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Other Theories of Liability |
|
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246 | (1) |
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|
247 | (3) |
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|
247 | (1) |
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248 | (1) |
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|
249 | (1) |
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Political Question Doctrine |
|
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249 | (1) |
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Practical Issues for Climate Change Litigation |
|
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250 | (6) |
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250 | (1) |
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251 | (2) |
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253 | (1) |
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Measure and Apportionment of Damages |
|
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254 | (1) |
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255 | (1) |
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|
256 | (2) |
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256 | (1) |
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Private, Corporate, and State Actors |
|
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257 | (1) |
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Extraterritorial Application |
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258 | (1) |
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Other International Claims |
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258 | (2) |
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Palau and Marshall Islands Petition |
|
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258 | (1) |
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Inuit Petition to Inter-American Commission on Human Rights |
|
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258 | (1) |
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259 | (1) |
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260 | (1) |
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260 | (11) |
Part III Regional, State, and Local Actions |
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Chapter 9 Regional Initiatives to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions |
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271 | (32) |
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271 | (1) |
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Regional Initiatives: Background |
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272 | (3) |
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RGGI: A Regional Plan for Northeast U.S. States |
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|
275 | (9) |
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The Emissions Cap and RGGI's Climate Impact |
|
|
276 | (3) |
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The Use of RGGI Proceeds and the Economic Impact |
|
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279 | (1) |
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The Comprehensive Program Review and the 2013 Updated Model Rule |
|
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280 | (2) |
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Leakage: The Problem and the Legal Concerns about Potential Solutions |
|
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282 | (2) |
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The Western Climate Initiative: Cross-Border Cooperation on Climate |
|
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284 | (3) |
|
|
285 | (1) |
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Regulatory Linkage: The Choices and Obstacles |
|
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286 | (1) |
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Crossing the Border: The Legal Issues |
|
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286 | (1) |
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Transportation-Related Regional Initiatives |
|
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287 | (1) |
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The Low Carbon Fuel Standard |
|
|
287 | (1) |
|
Transportation and Climate Initiative |
|
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287 | (1) |
|
Constitutional Issues for Regional Plans |
|
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287 | (7) |
|
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288 | (1) |
|
|
289 | (1) |
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The Dormant Commerce Clause |
|
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290 | (2) |
|
|
292 | (2) |
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Conclusion: The Future of Regional and Cross-Border Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Plans |
|
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294 | (9) |
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295 | (8) |
|
Chapter 10 State Initiatives |
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303 | (38) |
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Overview of State Programs |
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303 | (6) |
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303 | (1) |
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Obstacles to State Action |
|
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304 | (2) |
|
|
306 | (1) |
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Ancillary Benefits to States from Climate Change Policies |
|
|
307 | (2) |
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309 | (14) |
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|
309 | (1) |
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Climate Change-Specific Actions |
|
|
309 | (4) |
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Carbon-Based Energy Sector |
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|
313 | (10) |
|
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323 | (1) |
|
Federalism Limits to State Climate Policy |
|
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324 | (3) |
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327 | (1) |
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328 | (13) |
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341 | (34) |
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341 | (1) |
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342 | (7) |
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342 | (1) |
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343 | (1) |
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344 | (1) |
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Trading, Banking, and Borrowing |
|
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345 | (1) |
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346 | (1) |
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347 | (1) |
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Implementation and Enforcement |
|
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347 | (1) |
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348 | (1) |
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Early Large-Scale Programs |
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349 | (6) |
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349 | (3) |
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EU Emissions Trading System |
|
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352 | (3) |
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U.S. Programs for Greenhouse Gas Reductions |
|
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355 | (8) |
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Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative |
|
|
356 | (1) |
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AB 32, California's Global Warming Solutions Act |
|
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357 | (3) |
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Proposed Federal Legislation |
|
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360 | (1) |
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Use of Existing Federal Legislation |
|
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361 | (2) |
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363 | (1) |
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363 | (12) |
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Chapter 12 Local Initiatives |
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375 | (38) |
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|
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The Relevance of Local Action to Greenhouse Gas Emissions |
|
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375 | (2) |
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Local Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions |
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377 | (11) |
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Energy-Efficient Requirements for Buildings |
|
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377 | (5) |
|
Local Transportation Initiatives |
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382 | (2) |
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Waste-Related Initiatives |
|
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384 | (1) |
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384 | (1) |
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Municipal Utilities and Municipal Renewable Energy Initiatives |
|
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385 | (2) |
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Water and Wastewater Treatment Plants |
|
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387 | (1) |
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387 | (1) |
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Municipal Adaptation Strategies |
|
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388 | (2) |
|
Collective Initiatives by Municipalities |
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390 | (4) |
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ICLEI-Local Governments for Sustainability |
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390 | (2) |
|
C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group |
|
|
392 | (1) |
|
U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement |
|
|
392 | (1) |
|
Urban Environmental Accords |
|
|
393 | (1) |
|
Reporting Initiatives and Emissions Registries |
|
|
393 | (1) |
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Challenges Faced by Municipalities in Addressing Climate Change |
|
|
394 | (5) |
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394 | (4) |
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398 | (1) |
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399 | (14) |
Part IV Energy Regulation |
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|
Chapter 13 Electricity Background and Trends |
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413 | (48) |
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|
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The Electric Power Demand and Supply Balance |
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414 | (11) |
|
|
414 | (2) |
|
Composition of U.S. Electricity Supply Portfolio |
|
|
416 | (9) |
|
Electric Power Industry Structure and Regulation |
|
|
425 | (5) |
|
The Electric Utility and Traditional Retail Price Regulation |
|
|
425 | (2) |
|
Federal Regulation of Wholesale Power Sales and Its Implications for Climate Change Policies |
|
|
427 | (3) |
|
Electric Power Transmission |
|
|
430 | (5) |
|
Legal Approaches to Diversifying Power Supply to Address Climate Concerns |
|
|
435 | (8) |
|
Renewable Portfolio Standards |
|
|
435 | (2) |
|
PURPA and Feed-in Tariffs Rates |
|
|
437 | (1) |
|
Targeted Incentives for New Approaches to Power Generation |
|
|
438 | (1) |
|
|
439 | (2) |
|
Other Financing Assistance |
|
|
441 | (1) |
|
Production on Federal Lands and Facility Siting Assistance |
|
|
442 | (1) |
|
Reducing Demand for Electricity |
|
|
443 | (7) |
|
PURPA's Conservation and Efficiency Tools |
|
|
444 | (1) |
|
|
445 | (1) |
|
|
445 | (2) |
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Demand Reduction Initiatives: Demand Response, Smart Meters, and Voluntary Conservation |
|
|
447 | (3) |
|
|
450 | (11) |
|
Chapter 14 Electric Power Generation Fuels |
|
|
461 | (44) |
|
|
|
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461 | (2) |
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463 | (11) |
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|
464 | (3) |
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|
467 | (2) |
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|
469 | (5) |
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|
474 | (7) |
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|
475 | (4) |
|
Natural Gas Transmission and Distribution |
|
|
479 | (1) |
|
|
480 | (1) |
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|
481 | (6) |
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|
481 | (6) |
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487 | (1) |
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|
488 | (1) |
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|
488 | (17) |
|
Chapter 15 Transportation and Land Use |
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|
505 | (38) |
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|
Overview of Transportation, Land Use, and Climate Change |
|
|
505 | (2) |
|
Trends in Transportation Patterns |
|
|
507 | (3) |
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
|
508 | (1) |
|
|
509 | (1) |
|
Fuel Consumption and GHG Emissions |
|
|
509 | (1) |
|
Governmental and Institutional Structure Related to Transportation and Land Use |
|
|
510 | (5) |
|
The Legal Structure for Transportation and Land Use |
|
|
510 | (1) |
|
State and Federal Laws and Programs |
|
|
511 | (1) |
|
|
512 | (3) |
|
Reducing Vehicle Use through Land Use Regulations |
|
|
515 | (7) |
|
Transportation and Land Use Planning |
|
|
515 | (1) |
|
Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) |
|
|
516 | (4) |
|
Transportation-Efficient Development |
|
|
520 | (1) |
|
Neighborhood Sustainability and VMT Reduction |
|
|
521 | (1) |
|
Other Means of Reducing GHG Emissions from Vehicle Use |
|
|
522 | (6) |
|
|
523 | (1) |
|
Vehicle Occupancy Restrictions and Incentives |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
Bicycle Infrastructure and Bike Sharing |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
Parking Ratios and Pricing |
|
|
525 | (1) |
|
Rideshare Programs/Staggered Hours |
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
|
527 | (1) |
|
The Impact of Freight Transport on Climate Change |
|
|
528 | (3) |
|
|
531 | (1) |
|
|
532 | (11) |
Part V The Next Legal Frontiers |
|
|
Chapter 16 Transportation Fuels |
|
|
543 | (38) |
|
|
|
543 | (1) |
|
Energy Use for Transportation |
|
|
544 | (4) |
|
Domestic Energy Consumption |
|
|
544 | (2) |
|
Worldwide Energy Consumption |
|
|
546 | (2) |
|
Determinants of Transport Sector GHG Emissions |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
|
548 | (14) |
|
|
549 | (11) |
|
The Energy Policy and Conservation Act |
|
|
560 | (1) |
|
Other Statutory Authorities |
|
|
560 | (2) |
|
|
562 | (1) |
|
|
562 | (1) |
|
State Laws and Regulations |
|
|
562 | (1) |
|
Aviation and Marine Transport |
|
|
563 | (1) |
|
Policy Options Going Forward |
|
|
564 | (6) |
|
|
565 | (2) |
|
|
567 | (2) |
|
|
569 | (1) |
|
"All of the Above" Strategy |
|
|
569 | (1) |
|
|
570 | (1) |
|
|
571 | (10) |
|
Chapter 17 Carbon Capture and Sequestration |
|
|
581 | (40) |
|
|
|
581 | (4) |
|
|
581 | (2) |
|
Status of U.S. Demonstration Projects |
|
|
583 | (2) |
|
Laws Applicable to the Capture Technology |
|
|
585 | (4) |
|
Federal Laws, Regulations, and Cases |
|
|
585 | (3) |
|
|
588 | (1) |
|
|
588 | (1) |
|
|
588 | (1) |
|
Laws Applicable to Sequestration |
|
|
589 | (7) |
|
Federal Laws and Regulations |
|
|
591 | (2) |
|
State Laws and Regulations |
|
|
593 | (1) |
|
|
594 | (2) |
|
Additional Legal Issues: Managing Liability and Acquiring Property Rights |
|
|
596 | (5) |
|
Absence of a Federal Liability Framework for CCS |
|
|
596 | (2) |
|
Ownership of Pore Space and Deep Aquifers |
|
|
598 | (3) |
|
|
601 | (1) |
|
|
602 | (19) |
|
Chapter 18 Water and Climate Change |
|
|
621 | (28) |
|
|
|
|
621 | (1) |
|
Climate Change and Water Quantity |
|
|
622 | (9) |
|
Water Supply Impacts Associated with Climate Change |
|
|
622 | (1) |
|
Climate Change and Implications for Water Law |
|
|
623 | (8) |
|
Climate Change and Water Quality |
|
|
631 | (8) |
|
Impacts Associated with Climate Change |
|
|
631 | (1) |
|
|
632 | (3) |
|
Implications for Municipal Treatment Infrastructure |
|
|
635 | (3) |
|
Climate Change, Water, and Energy |
|
|
638 | (1) |
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
|
640 | (9) |
|
Chapter 19 Agriculture and Forestry |
|
|
649 | (28) |
|
|
|
649 | (1) |
|
Agriculture and Forestry as GHG Sources |
|
|
650 | (2) |
|
|
650 | (1) |
|
|
651 | (1) |
|
Agriculture and Forestry as GHG Sinks |
|
|
652 | (1) |
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
|
654 | (11) |
|
Land Conservation, Preservation, and Enhancement Regulations and Incentive Programs |
|
|
656 | (6) |
|
Changing Agricultural Methods |
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
Forest Management Practices and Linkage of Forests with Other Sectors |
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
Biofuels: Substituting Agricultural or Forestry Feedstock for Fossil Fuels |
|
|
662 | (2) |
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
Tipping toward Source or Sink?: Future Issues for U.S. Agriculture and Forestry |
|
|
665 | (2) |
|
Agriculture and a Growing Population's Demand for GHG-Intensive Food |
|
|
665 | (1) |
|
Forests and a Growing Population's Demand for Land: A Southeastern Case Study |
|
|
666 | (1) |
|
|
667 | (1) |
|
|
668 | (9) |
|
Chapter 20 Climate Adaptation Law |
|
|
677 | (38) |
|
|
|
677 | (2) |
|
Defining Adaptation Law and Policy |
|
|
679 | (4) |
|
Adaptation Planning Initiatives |
|
|
683 | (3) |
|
|
683 | (2) |
|
|
685 | (1) |
|
|
685 | (1) |
|
|
685 | (1) |
|
Climate Change Adaptation Law to Date |
|
|
686 | (8) |
|
Coastal Land Use Controls |
|
|
686 | (3) |
|
Environmental Impact Assessment Programs |
|
|
689 | (3) |
|
|
692 | (1) |
|
Corporate Disclosure Requirements |
|
|
692 | (1) |
|
Endangered Species Protection |
|
|
693 | (1) |
|
|
694 | (1) |
|
Future Realms of Climate Change Adaptation Law |
|
|
694 | (11) |
|
Land and Natural Resources |
|
|
694 | (5) |
|
|
699 | (2) |
|
Business Disputes and Regulation |
|
|
701 | (2) |
|
Health and Safety Concerns |
|
|
703 | (1) |
|
|
704 | (1) |
|
|
705 | (1) |
|
|
706 | (9) |
|
Chapter 21 Geoengineering |
|
|
715 | (32) |
|
|
|
715 | (6) |
|
|
716 | (1) |
|
Solar Radiation Management |
|
|
717 | (2) |
|
|
719 | (2) |
|
|
721 | (3) |
|
|
722 | (1) |
|
|
722 | (1) |
|
|
723 | (1) |
|
Availability of Carbon Credits |
|
|
724 | (1) |
|
|
724 | (9) |
|
|
725 | (1) |
|
|
725 | (3) |
|
|
728 | (4) |
|
Customary International Law |
|
|
732 | (1) |
|
|
733 | (4) |
|
|
733 | (3) |
|
|
736 | (1) |
|
|
737 | (1) |
|
|
737 | (10) |
|
Chapter 22 Addressing Climate Change through Nonclimate International Instruments |
|
|
747 | (48) |
|
|
|
General Intergovernmental Forums |
|
|
747 | (4) |
|
United Nations (not UNFCCC) |
|
|
747 | (2) |
|
|
749 | (1) |
|
|
750 | (1) |
|
The Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate |
|
|
751 | (1) |
|
Multilateral Environmental (Nonclimate) Treaty Regimes |
|
|
751 | (13) |
|
|
752 | (2) |
|
UN Convention on the Law of the Sea |
|
|
754 | (1) |
|
MARPOL and Emissions from Shipping |
|
|
755 | (1) |
|
The 1972 London Convention and Ocean Fertilization |
|
|
756 | (1) |
|
The Antarctic Treaty Regime |
|
|
757 | (1) |
|
|
758 | (1) |
|
Desertification Convention |
|
|
759 | (1) |
|
|
760 | (1) |
|
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species |
|
|
761 | (1) |
|
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals |
|
|
761 | (1) |
|
World Heritage Convention |
|
|
762 | (1) |
|
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands |
|
|
763 | (1) |
|
The International Court of Justice and Customary Law |
|
|
764 | (1) |
|
Bilateral Climate and Energy Cooperation Agreements |
|
|
765 | (1) |
|
Nonenvironmental Institutions |
|
|
766 | (11) |
|
ICAO and Aviation Fuel Standards |
|
|
766 | (1) |
|
Human Rights and Climate Change |
|
|
767 | (2) |
|
|
769 | (5) |
|
|
774 | (3) |
|
Multilateral Public-Private Coalitions to Address Climate Change |
|
|
777 | (1) |
|
The Climate and Clean Air Coalition |
|
|
777 | (1) |
|
The Global Methane Initiative |
|
|
777 | (1) |
|
A "Cloud" of Public-Private Commitments |
|
|
778 | (1) |
|
|
778 | (17) |
|
Chapter 23 U.S. Climate Change Law and Policy: Possible Paths Forward |
|
|
795 | (46) |
|
|
|
|
795 | (2) |
|
Tracking Political Progress on Climate Change |
|
|
797 | (6) |
|
What to Expect from Congress |
|
|
803 | (15) |
|
|
804 | (2) |
|
|
806 | (3) |
|
Renewable or Clean Energy Standard |
|
|
809 | (2) |
|
|
811 | (2) |
|
Renewable Fuel Standard Reform/Low-Carbon Fuel Standard |
|
|
813 | (2) |
|
|
815 | (3) |
|
Looking Forward: Integrating Energy and Climate Change Policy |
|
|
818 | (4) |
|
|
822 | (19) |
Table of Cases |
|
841 | (10) |
Index |
|
851 | |