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Part I GNSS Theory and Delays |
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3 | (14) |
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3 | (5) |
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3 | (2) |
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5 | (1) |
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6 | (1) |
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7 | (1) |
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1.1.5 Other Regional Systems |
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7 | (1) |
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1.2 GNSS Systems and Signals |
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8 | (3) |
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8 | (2) |
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10 | (1) |
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1.3 GNSS Theory and Errors |
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11 | (2) |
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12 | (1) |
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12 | (1) |
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1.4 GNSS Observations and Applications |
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13 | (4) |
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1.4.1 GNSS Observation Network |
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13 | (1) |
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14 | (2) |
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16 | (1) |
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2 GNSS Atmospheric and Multipath Delays |
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17 | (16) |
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2.1 Atmospheric Refractivity |
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17 | (1) |
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2.2 GNSS Atmospheric Delays |
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18 | (2) |
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2.2.1 Neutral Atmospheric Delays |
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18 | (1) |
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2.2.2 Empirical Tropospheric Models |
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19 | (1) |
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2.3 GNSS Ionospheric Delay |
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20 | (5) |
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20 | (1) |
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2.3.2 GNSS Ionospheric Delay |
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21 | (3) |
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2.3.3 Empirical Ionospheric Models |
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24 | (1) |
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25 | (8) |
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25 | (2) |
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2.4.2 Multipath Variations |
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27 | (2) |
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2.4.3 Surface Reflection Characteristics |
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29 | (1) |
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30 | (3) |
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Part II GNSS Atmospheric Sensing and Applications |
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3 Ground GNSS Atmospheric Sensing |
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33 | (28) |
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33 | (1) |
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34 | (3) |
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3.2.1 Estimates of GNSS ZTD |
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34 | (1) |
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35 | (2) |
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3.3 ZTD Estimate and Variations |
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37 | (14) |
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3.3.1 ZTD Estimates from IGS Observations |
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37 | (3) |
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3.3.2 Multi-Scale ZTD Variations |
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40 | (11) |
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3.4 GNSS Precipitable Water Vapor |
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51 | (6) |
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51 | (1) |
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3.4.2 Comparison with Independent Observations |
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52 | (1) |
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3.4.3 Mean PWV Characteristics |
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53 | (2) |
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3.4.4 Seasonal PWV Variations |
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55 | (2) |
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3.4.5 Diurnal PWV Variations |
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57 | (1) |
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3.5 3-D Water Vapor Topography |
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57 | (1) |
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58 | (3) |
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58 | (3) |
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4 Ground GNSS Ionosphere Sounding |
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61 | (32) |
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61 | (2) |
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4.2 GNSS Ionospheric Sounding |
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63 | (8) |
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65 | (5) |
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70 | (1) |
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4.3 2-D Ionopspheric Mapping |
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71 | (8) |
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4.3.1 Method of 2-D Ionospheric Mapping |
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71 | (3) |
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4.3.2 Applications of 2-D GNSS TEC |
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74 | (5) |
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4.4 3-D GNSS Ionospheric Mapping |
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79 | (14) |
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4.4.1 3-D Ionospheric Topography |
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79 | (2) |
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4.4.2 Validation of GNSS Ionospheric Tomography |
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81 | (1) |
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4.4.3 Assessment of IRI-2001 Using GNSS Tomography |
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82 | (3) |
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4.4.4 Ionospheric Slab Thickness |
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85 | (3) |
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4.4.5 3-D ionospheric Behaviours to Storms |
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88 | (2) |
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90 | (3) |
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5 Theory of GNSS Radio Occultation |
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93 | (28) |
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93 | (5) |
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5.1.1 Radio Occultation in Planetary Sciences |
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93 | (1) |
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5.1.2 GNSS Radio Occultation in Earth Sciences |
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94 | (4) |
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5.2 Principle of GNSS Radio Occultation |
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98 | (6) |
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5.2.1 Atmospheric Refraction |
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99 | (1) |
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5.2.2 Geometric Optics Approximation |
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100 | (1) |
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5.2.3 Spherically Symmetric Atmosphere Assumption |
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101 | (1) |
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5.2.4 Bending Angle and Refractive Index |
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102 | (2) |
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5.3 GNSS Radio Occultation Processing |
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104 | (17) |
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5.3.1 Calibrating and Extracting GNSS RO Observables |
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104 | (6) |
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5.3.2 Bending Angle Retrieval |
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110 | (3) |
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5.3.3 Ionosphere Retrieval |
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113 | (2) |
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5.3.4 Neutral Atmosphere Retrieval |
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115 | (2) |
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117 | (4) |
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6 Atmospheric Sensing Using GNSS RO |
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121 | (38) |
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6.1 GNSS RO Atmospheric Sounding |
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121 | (3) |
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6.1.1 Parameters Retrieval from GNSS RO |
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121 | (1) |
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6.1.2 Dry Atmosphere Retrieval (Density, Pressure and Temperature) |
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122 | (1) |
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6.1.3 Moist Atmosphere Retrieval |
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123 | (1) |
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6.1.4 1D-Var (Variational Method) |
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124 | (1) |
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6.2 Characteristics of GNSS RO Observations |
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124 | (12) |
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6.2.1 Spatial Resolution (Vertical and Horizontal Resolution) |
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126 | (1) |
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6.2.2 Accuracy and Precision Analysis |
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126 | (1) |
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127 | (2) |
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129 | (1) |
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130 | (5) |
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6.2.6 Experimental Validation of RO Accuracy and Precision |
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135 | (1) |
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6.3 Dynamic Processes Studies with GNSS RO |
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136 | (5) |
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6.3.1 Tropopause and Stratospheric Waves |
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137 | (1) |
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6.3.2 Tropical Tidal Waves |
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138 | (1) |
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138 | (1) |
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6.3.4 Tropical Cyclones (TC) |
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139 | (1) |
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6.3.5 Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) |
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140 | (1) |
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6.4 Weather Prediction Applications |
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141 | (2) |
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6.4.1 GNSS RO Data Assimilation |
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141 | (1) |
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6.4.2 Operational Assimilation of GNSS RO in NWP Models |
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142 | (1) |
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143 | (3) |
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6.6 Future Application of Radio Occultation |
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146 | (13) |
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6.6.1 Future GNSS and GNSS RO Missions |
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146 | (1) |
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6.6.2 Airborne and Mountain-Top GNSS RO |
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146 | (3) |
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6.6.3 LEO-to-LEO Occultation |
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149 | (1) |
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150 | (9) |
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7 Ionospheric Sounding Using GNSS-RO |
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159 | (16) |
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159 | (1) |
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7.2 Ionospheric Inversion |
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159 | (7) |
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7.2.1 Ionosphere Inversion Based on Doppler |
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161 | (2) |
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7.2.2 Ionosphere Inversion Based on TEC |
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163 | (1) |
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7.2.3 Recursive Inversion of TEC |
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164 | (1) |
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7.2.4 Amplitude Inversion |
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165 | (1) |
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166 | (1) |
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166 | (1) |
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7.3.2 Data Processing Errors |
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167 | (1) |
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167 | (1) |
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7.5 GNSS-RO Ionospheric Applications |
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168 | (7) |
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7.5.1 Establishing Ionospheric Models |
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168 | (1) |
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7.5.2 Ionospheric Tomography |
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168 | (1) |
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7.5.3 Monitoring Ionospheric Anomalies |
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169 | (1) |
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7.5.4 Ionospheric Scintillation |
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170 | (1) |
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170 | (5) |
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Part III GNSS Reflectometry and Remote Sensing |
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8 Theory of GNSS Reflectometry |
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175 | (40) |
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175 | (2) |
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8.2 Multi-static System: Geometry and Coverage |
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177 | (1) |
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8.3 Specular and Diffuse Scattering |
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178 | (6) |
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184 | (4) |
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8.5 Reflectivity Levels and Polarization Issues |
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188 | (4) |
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192 | (11) |
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8.6.1 Kirchhoff or Tangent Plane Approximation (KA) |
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194 | (4) |
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8.6.2 Summary of Other Methods |
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198 | (1) |
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8.6.3 Received GNSS Scattered Fields |
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199 | (2) |
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8.6.4 The Bi-static Radar Equation for GNSS Modulated Signals |
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201 | (2) |
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8.7 Noise and Coherence Issues |
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203 | (2) |
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205 | (1) |
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8.9 PARIS Interferometric Technique (PIT) |
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206 | (2) |
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208 | (7) |
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211 | (4) |
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9 Ocean Remote Sensing Using GNSS-R |
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215 | (26) |
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215 | (12) |
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9.1.1 Group Delay Altimetry |
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221 | (3) |
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9.1.2 Atmospheric Corrections |
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224 | (1) |
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9.1.3 GNSS-R Ocean Altimetric Performance |
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225 | (2) |
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9.2 Ocean Surface Roughness |
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227 | (14) |
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228 | (6) |
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9.2.2 Retrieval Approaches |
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234 | (2) |
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236 | (5) |
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10 Hydrology and Vegetation Remote Sensing |
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241 | (10) |
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241 | (1) |
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10.2 Hydrology GNSS-Reflectometry |
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242 | (1) |
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10.3 Hydrology Sensing from GNSS-R |
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243 | (5) |
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10.3.1 Waveform Correlation |
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243 | (1) |
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10.3.2 Interference Pattern Technique (IPT) |
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244 | (1) |
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10.3.3 Hydrology Sensing from GNSS |
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245 | (1) |
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10.3.4 GNSS-R Scattering Properties |
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246 | (1) |
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10.3.5 GNSS-R Polarization |
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247 | (1) |
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10.4 GNSS-R Forest Biomass Monitoring |
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248 | (1) |
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249 | (2) |
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249 | (2) |
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11 Cryospheric Sensing Using GNSS-R |
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251 | (10) |
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251 | (6) |
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11.1.1 Dry Snow Reflection Model: Multiple-Ray Single-Reflection |
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252 | (3) |
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11.1.2 Dry Snow Observable: Lag-Hologram |
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255 | (2) |
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257 | (2) |
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11.2.1 Observations from Space-Borne GNSS-R |
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257 | (1) |
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11.2.2 Observations from Ground GNSS-R |
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258 | (1) |
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11.3 Sounding the Sea Ice Conditions |
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259 | (2) |
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259 | (2) |
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12 Summary and Future Chances |
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261 | (10) |
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12.1 Status of GNSS Remote Sensing |
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261 | (2) |
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12.1.1 Atmospheric Sensing |
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261 | (1) |
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262 | (1) |
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262 | (1) |
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12.1.4 Cryosphere Mapping |
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263 | (1) |
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12.2 Future Developments and Chances |
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263 | (4) |
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12.2.1 More GNSS Networks and Constellations |
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263 | (1) |
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12.2.2 Advanced GNSS Receivers |
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263 | (2) |
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12.2.3 New Missions and Systems |
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265 | (1) |
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12.2.4 New and Emerging Applications |
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266 | (1) |
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267 | (4) |
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268 | (3) |
Index |
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