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Human Factors in Simulation and Training [Hardback]

Edited by (Partnership 1, Air 4651, Orlando, Florida, USA), Edited by (The Wise Group, LLC, Ormond Beach, Florida, USA), Edited by (University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA), Edited by (University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA.)
  • Formāts: Hardback, 468 pages, height x width: 254x178 mm, weight: 997 g, 27 Tables, black and white; 89 Illustrations, black and white
  • Izdošanas datums: 17-Dec-2008
  • Izdevniecība: CRC Press Inc
  • ISBN-10: 1420072838
  • ISBN-13: 9781420072839
  • Hardback
  • Cena: 197,77 €
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  • Formāts: Hardback, 468 pages, height x width: 254x178 mm, weight: 997 g, 27 Tables, black and white; 89 Illustrations, black and white
  • Izdošanas datums: 17-Dec-2008
  • Izdevniecība: CRC Press Inc
  • ISBN-10: 1420072838
  • ISBN-13: 9781420072839
Measure twice, cut once. Although applicable to all areas of human factors research, the old adage is especially relevant to simulation and training. As a tool, simulation is an aid to the imagination, however, if incorrectly or inadequately used, it can lead to inaccurate outcomes that not only limit the possibilities but potentially cause harm. A comprehensive overview of the topic from a human factor perspective, Human Factors in Simulation and Training not only reflects the state-of-the art but also integrates the literature on simulation into a cohesive resource.

The editors have collected chapters on a wide variety of topics, beginning with theory and application in areas ranging from traditional training to augmented reality to virtual reality. This coverage includes surface ships, submarines, naval aviation, commercial aviation, space, and medicine. The theory based section focuses on human factors aspects of simulation and training ranging from the history of simulators and training devices, to future trends in simulation from both a civilian and military perspective. The chapters expand on concepts regarding simulator usage particularly with respect to the validity and functionality of simulators as training devices. They contain in depth discussions of specific issues including fidelity, interfaces and control devices, transfer of training, simulator sickness, effects of motion in simulated systems, and virtual reality.

As more, and more sophisticated, simulation tools and training technologies become available, a complete understanding of how to use them appropriately will be even more crucial. Elucidating theory and application, the book addresses numerous issues and concepts pertaining to human factors in simulation and training, making this volume an important addition to the bookshelf of any human factors professional.
Preface ix
Editors xi
Contributors xv
SECTION I Theory
Human Factors in Simulation and Training: An Overview
3(36)
William F. Moroney
Michael G. Lilienthal
Introduction
4(2)
Simulation versus Modeling
6(1)
Domains and Dimensions of Modeling and Simulation
7(1)
When Is a Simulator Not a Simulator?
8(1)
Why Simulate?
9(7)
Advantages of M&S
9(1)
Cost Effectiveness
9(3)
Availability
12(1)
Safety
13(1)
Surrogate Value
13(1)
Environmental Problem Reduction
13(1)
Improved Training Environment
14(1)
Standardized Training Environments
14(1)
Provision of Data
14(1)
Lack of Realism
14(1)
Disadvantages of Simulation
15(1)
Failure to Reflect Real-World Performance
15(1)
Equipment and Facility Costs
15(1)
Surrogate Value
15(1)
User Acceptance
15(1)
Brief History of Simulation
16(6)
War Gaming
16(2)
Aviation
18(4)
21st-Century Simulators
22(2)
Deployable Trainers
23(1)
Virtual Reality and Virtual Environments
24(2)
Online Gaming
26(1)
Modeling and Simulation Development Processes
26(3)
Other Simulation Areas
29(3)
Simulating Human Behavior
29(2)
Simulation and Learning
31(1)
Workplace Simulations
31(1)
Challenges and Opportunities in Human Factors and Simulation
32(1)
Acknowledgments
33(1)
References
33(6)
Justification for Use of Simulation
39(10)
Trena N. Thompson
Meredith B. Carroll
John E. Deaton
Introduction
39(1)
System Engineering Evaluation
40(1)
Training Effectiveness and Value
40(7)
Advantages
41(2)
Disadvantages
43(3)
Applicable Domains
46(1)
Conclusion
47(1)
References
47(2)
Transfer of Training
49(12)
Dahai Liu
Elizabeth L. Blickensderfer
Nikolas D. Macchiarella
Dennis A. Vincenzi
Introduction
49(1)
Transfer of Training: Terms and Concepts
50(3)
Positive Transfer
50(1)
Negative Transfer
50(1)
A Model of Factors Affecting the Transfer of Training
51(2)
Research Methods
53(6)
Transfer of Training Performance Measurement
54(1)
Objective Measures
54(1)
Subjective Measures
54(1)
Selecting Performance Measures
54(1)
Experimental Design
55(2)
Curve-Fitting Method
57(1)
Criticisms of Transfer of Training Studies
58(1)
Summary
59(1)
References
59(2)
Simulation Fidelity
61(14)
Dahai Liu
Nikolas D. Macchiarella
Dennis A. Vincenzi
Introduction
61(1)
Definition of Fidelity
62(5)
Physical Fidelity
64(1)
Visual-Audio Fidelity
64(1)
Equipment Fidelity
65(1)
Motion Fidelity
65(1)
Psychological-Cognitive Fidelity
66(1)
Other Fidelity
66(1)
Measuring Fidelity
67(3)
The Mathematical Model
68(1)
Fidelity Evaluation Frameworks
69(1)
Fidelity and Transfer of Training
70(1)
Summary
71(1)
References
72(3)
Controls and Displays for Aviation Research Simulation
75(42)
Kristen K. Liggett
Gloria L. Calhoun
Introduction
76(1)
Fixed-Based Simulators
77(13)
Integrated Information Presentation and Control System Study (IIPACSS) Simulator
77(1)
Display Technology
78(1)
Control Technology
78(1)
Representative Research
78(2)
Impact
80(1)
Digital Synthesis (DIGISYN) Simulator
80(1)
Display Technology
80(1)
Control Technology
80(2)
Representative Research
82(2)
Impact
84(1)
Microprocessor Applications for Graphics and Interactive Communication (MAGIC) Simulator
84(1)
Display Technology
85(1)
Control Technology
85(1)
Representative Research
85(1)
Impact
86(1)
Panoramic Cockpit Control and Display System (PCCADS) Simulator
86(1)
Display Technology
86(1)
Control Technology
87(1)
Representative Research
87(2)
Results of BAI Part 1
89(1)
Impact
90(1)
Helmet-Mounted Oculometer Facility (HMOF) Simulator
90(4)
Display Technology
91(1)
Control Technology
91(1)
Eye and Head Monitor
91(1)
Representative Research
91(2)
Impact
93(1)
Synthetic Interface Research for UAV Systems (SIRUS) Simulator
94(2)
Display Technology
94(1)
Control Technology
95(1)
Representative Research
95(1)
Impact
96(1)
Motion-Based Simulators
96(3)
Dynamic Environmental Simulator (DES)
97(1)
Display Technology
97(1)
Control Technology
97(1)
Representative Research
98(1)
Background
98(1)
Impact
99(1)
In-Flight Simulators
99(7)
Variable In-Flight Stability Test Aircraft (VISTA) Lockheed NF-16D Fighter Aircraft
99(1)
Representative Research
99(3)
Impact
102(1)
Total In-Flight Simulator (TIFS) NC-131H Transport Aircraft
102(1)
Representative Research
103(1)
Impact
103(1)
NASA's OV-10
103(1)
Display Technology
104(1)
Control Technology
104(1)
Representative Research
104(1)
Impact
105(1)
The Future of Displays and Controls Technology for Simulation
106(4)
Future Displays
106(1)
Visual Displays
106(1)
Audio Displays
107(1)
Tactile Displays
107(1)
Summary
107(1)
Future Controls
108(1)
Gesture-Based Control
108(1)
Electromyographic (EMG)-Based Control
108(1)
Electroencephalographic (EEG)-Based Control
109(1)
Summary
109(1)
Pilot Aiding System
110(2)
Conclusion
112(1)
Summary
112(1)
Acknowledgment
113(1)
References
113(4)
Simulation Sickness
117(12)
Kay M. Stanney
Robert S. Kennedy
Introduction
117(2)
Problems Associated with Exposure to Simulator Systems
118(1)
Individual Susceptibility and Stimulus Intensity
119(2)
Factors Affecting the Capacity to Resist Adverse Effects of Simulator Exposure
120(1)
Lackling the Problem
121(2)
Factors Influencing Simulator Stimulus Intensity
121(1)
Addressing System Factors That Influence the Strength of a Simulator Stimulus
122(1)
Steps to Quantifying Simulator Stimulus Intensity
122(1)
Usage Protocol
123(1)
Simulator System Usage Protocol
123(1)
Conclusions
124(1)
Acknowledgments
124(1)
References
124(5)
Simulation-Based Situation Awareness Training
129(20)
Laura D. Strater
Cheryl A. Bolstad
Introduction
129(1)
Simulations in SA Research, Measurement, and Training
130(3)
Simulations in SA Research
131(1)
Simulations in SA Measurement
131(1)
Simulations in SA Training
131(2)
Structured SA-Oriented Training Development Process
133(11)
Identify Domain-Specific SA Requirements
133(1)
Identify and Develop SA Measures
134(2)
Identify SA Deficits within the Domain
136(1)
Analysis of Existing Research and Training Literature
137(1)
Survey of Key SA Skills
138(1)
Investigation of Existing Research Data for Linkages between SA and Decision Making
138(1)
Develop Training Program to Target Selected Skills
139(1)
SA Planner
140(1)
SA Trainer
140(1)
Validate Training Programs
141(1)
Participants
142(1)
Materials and Procedure
142(1)
Results
143(1)
Discussion
143(1)
Identify Training Modifications Needed
144(1)
General Discussion and Implications for Future Research
144(2)
Conclusion
146(1)
Acknowledgments
146(1)
References
146(3)
Performance Assessment in Simulation
149(20)
Steven Hall
Michael T. Brannick
Subjective Methods of Performance Measurement
150(11)
Purpose of Performance Measures
150(1)
Special Properties of Performance Measures in Simulators
150(1)
Defining and Assessing Reliability
151(1)
Data Requirements
152(1)
Qualitative versus Quantitative
152(1)
A Qualitative Index
153(1)
Quantitative Indices
154(1)
Is the Difference in Means Meaningful?
154(1)
Correlation Coefficient
154(1)
Intraclass Correlations
155(2)
Number of Judges
157(1)
Other Designs for Assessing Agreement among Judges
158(1)
Enhancing Reliability
159(1)
Changing the Task
159(1)
Rater Training
159(1)
Special Problems with Simulators
160(1)
The Gouge
160(1)
Instructor Attitudes
160(1)
Objective Methods of Performance Measurement
161(6)
Automated Data Collection Systems
162(1)
Flight Technical Error
162(1)
Deviation-Based Metrics
162(1)
Root Mean Square Error
163(1)
Number of Deviations and Time-Outside Standard
163(2)
Time within FAA Practical Test Standard
165(1)
Non-FTE Measures
166(1)
Rates of Change
166(1)
Control Input
166(1)
Summary
167(1)
References
167(2)
The Future of Simulation
169(20)
Peter A. Hancock
Proem
169(1)
The Fundamental and Practical Reasons for Simulation
170(1)
Simulation in the Past
170(3)
On Predicting the Future
173(2)
The Practicalities of Simulation
175(1)
Simulation and Training
176(1)
Discourse between Two Worlds
177(1)
Hybrid Simulation Worlds
178(1)
Assessing the Progress of Simulation Technologies
179(1)
The Turing Test of Simulation
180(1)
Super-Simulation
181(1)
The Moral Dimension of Simulation
182(1)
A Philosophical Valediction
182(3)
Summary and Conclusion
185(1)
Acknowledgments
185(1)
References
186(3)
SECTION II Application
Human Factors and Discrete-Event Simulation
189(12)
Linda Trocine
Dahai Liu
Abstract
189(1)
Discrete-Event Simulation
189(1)
Modeling Complex Systems
190(1)
Input Modeling
190(1)
Random Variates
191(1)
The Simulation Model
191(1)
Output Analysis
191(1)
Decision Making with Discrete-Event Simulation
191(1)
Human Factors and Discrete-Event Simulation
192(6)
A Sampling of Literature
192(2)
Applications
194(1)
Example
195(1)
Software and Training Resources
196(2)
Conclusion
198(1)
References
199(2)
Virtual Reality in the Training Environment
201(30)
Dylan Schmorrow
Denise Nicholson
Stephanie J. Lackey
Robert C. Allen
Kristie Norman
Joseph Cohn
Chapter Overview
201(1)
Training Challenges
201(1)
Realizing the Technological Potential of Virtual Reality: A Naval Example and Application
202(4)
Enabling Technologies and Applications
206(1)
Instructional Strategies
206(9)
SBT Guidelines
208(1)
Planning
208(1)
Execution
208(1)
Assessment
208(7)
Virtual Reality Technologies
215(8)
Synthetic Natural Environment (SNE)
223(1)
SNE within VIRTE
224(1)
Computer-Generated Forces (CGF)
224(1)
CGFs in VIRTE
225(2)
Identifying Insertion Points
227(1)
Conclusions and Future Directions
228(1)
References
228(3)
The Transformation of Shiphandling and Navigation Training
231(8)
Alton G. Seamon
From Sextants to Satellites
231(2)
Early Navigation and Shiphandling Trainers
233(1)
Submarine Piloting and Navigation (SPAN) Team Training
233(1)
Mini-Submarine Piloting and Navigation
233(1)
Submarine Piloting and Navigation 2000
234(1)
Virtual Environment-Submarine Shiphandling 2000 (VESUB)
234(3)
Perceptual and Cognitive Task Analysis
235(1)
Formative Evaluations
235(1)
Training Effectiveness Evaluation (TEE)
236(1)
Simulation and Training Issues
237(1)
References
238(1)
Space Adaptation Syndrome and Perceptual Training
239(18)
Mustapha Mouloua
Janan A. Smither
Robert S. Kennedy
Introduction
239(2)
Background
239(2)
Individual Differences in Adaptation
241(2)
The Long-Term Retention, Conditioning, and Transfer of Adaptation
243(3)
Long-Lasting Adaptation Effects
243(1)
Generalizability
244(2)
Reducing Symptomatology through Perceptual Training
246(1)
Effect of Preadaptation Training on Virtual Reality Exposure
246(3)
Effect of Preadaptation Training on Vection Drum Exposure
249(1)
Conclusion
250(1)
Acknowledgments
251(1)
References
251(6)
Civil Aviation: Flight Simulators and Training
257(30)
Ronald J. Lofaro
Kevin M. Smith
Introduction
258(1)
An Overview of Civil Aviation Training, Flight Simulators, and the Human Factors Therein
259(5)
Introduction
259(2)
Flight Simulator Basics
261(1)
Human Factors and Flight Simulators
262(1)
Major Drivers in Civil Aviation Pilot/Crew Training
263(1)
Flight Simulators and Flight Training Devices
264(3)
Overview
264(1)
Flight Simulators and Training
265(1)
Flight Training Devices and Training
265(1)
Flight Simulator and FTD Assessment
266(1)
SFAR 58 and AQP
267(2)
History
267(1)
SFAR/AQP: Overview and Synopsis
267(1)
SFAR 58
268(1)
AQP, LOS/LOFT, and Simulators
268(1)
Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT)
269(1)
Background
269(1)
Maximizing LOFT: The Mission Performance Model and the Operational Decision Making Paradigm
270(4)
LOFT: Current and Future
270(1)
Risk Identification and Management: Training and Evaluation with MPM and ODM Paradigm
270(1)
Mission Performance Model
271(2)
From CRM/MPM to ODM
273(1)
The ODM
274(7)
Operational Decision Making: New Window of Opportunity
274(1)
Introduction to the ODM Paradigm
274(1)
Components of the ODM Model
275(1)
Risk Management: Risk, Rising Risk, and Flying the Line
275(1)
Risk Management: The Operational Envelope, Risk Location, and Cumulative Effect
275(1)
Risk Management: Critical Mission Impact Areas and Their Components
276(1)
Boundary Conditions as Mission Critical Impact Areas
277(1)
Risk Management: Situation Knowledge and Risk Location
277(1)
Risk Management: Rising Risk, Risk Location, and Response Action
277(2)
A Distinction: Cumulative Effect Resultant versus Additive Effect Resultant
279(1)
Operational Envelope and Rising Risk Continuum: Relationship
280(1)
Putting It All Together: Risk Location and Risk Management in the Operational Envelope
280(1)
ODM and MPM in LOFT Design, Development, and Evaluation
281(4)
Introduction
281(1)
LOFT: ODM and MRM
281(2)
LOFT Design: Another Approach
283(1)
Training
284(1)
References
285(1)
Federal Aviation Administration Advisory Circulars (AC) and Regulations
286(1)
Distributed After-Action Review for Simulation-Based Training
287(14)
Emily E. Wiese
Jared Freeman
William J. Salter
Emily M. Stelzer
Cullen Jackson
Introduction
288(2)
Definitions
288(1)
Some Issues in Distributed AARs for Simulation-Based Training
289(1)
Traditional Debriefing Techniques
290(1)
Functions and Current Methods of AAR
290(2)
Functions of AAR
290(1)
Methods of AAR
290(2)
Challenges of Distributed AARs
292(2)
Performance Diagnosis
292(1)
Performance Recall, Comparison, and Extrapolation
293(1)
Assessment and Display of Competence
294(1)
Requirements for Distributed AARs
294(3)
Communication
294(1)
Collaboration
295(1)
Automated Data Capture
295(1)
Data Presentation
295(1)
Data Selection
295(1)
Replay Perspective
296(1)
Expert Models of Performance
296(1)
Flexible Delivery Style
296(1)
Postexercise Review
296(1)
Store Lessons Learned
296(1)
Scaleable
297(1)
Ease of Use
297(1)
Current Techniques for Debriefing Distributed Teams
297(1)
State of the Art in Distributed Debriefing
297(1)
Large-Scale Distributed Simulation Training Exercises
297(1)
Small-Scale Distributed Simulation Training Exercises
298(1)
Summary
298(1)
References
298(3)
Performance Measurement Issues and Guidelines for Adaptive, Simulation-Based Training
301(20)
Phillip M. Mangos
Joan H. Johnston
Introduction
301(1)
Illustration of Future Simulation-Based Training Capabilities and Trends
302(2)
A Confirmatory Performance Measurement Framework for Adaptive, Simulation-Based Training
304(8)
Dimensions and Essential Characteristics of Performance Measures
306(1)
Validity
306(2)
Criterion Relevance
308(1)
Reliability
309(1)
Measure Invariance
309(2)
Objectivity and Intrusiveness
311(1)
Diagnosticity
311(1)
Measurement Principles for Adaptive Training
312(5)
Ensure That Performance Measure Development Is Guided by Sound Theory
312(3)
Consider and Exploit Measurement Affordances
315(1)
Ensure Usefulness of Measures for Evaluating Training Effectiveness
316(1)
Summary and Conclusion
317(1)
References
317(4)
Decision Making under Crisis Conditions: A Training and Simulation Perspective
321(12)
Tiffany Nickens
Dahai Liu
Dennis A. Vincenzi
Introduction
321(1)
Effects of Time Stress and Uncertainty on Decision Making
322(1)
Other Effects on Human Decision Makers Under Crisis Conditions
323(1)
Decision-Making Theories
323(1)
Decision-Making Performance Measures
324(1)
Crisis Decision-Making Training
325(3)
General and Stress Training
325(2)
Simulation
327(1)
Microworld
328(1)
Conclusion
328(1)
References
329(4)
Augmented Reality as a Means of Job Task Training in Aviation
333(16)
Nikolas D. Macchiarella
Dahai Liu
Dennis A. Vincenzi
Augmented Reality (AR)
334(1)
Historical Overview: AR and Training
334(4)
Cognition and AR
338(4)
Elaboration and Recall
338(1)
Spatial Relations
339(2)
Memory Channels and AR
341(1)
Knowledge Development and Training Transfer
342(2)
What is the Future of Job Training---Training on the Job Literally?
344(2)
Conclusion
346(1)
References
346(3)
Simulation Research in the Command and Control of Air Operations: Implications of the Network-Centric Concept
349(22)
Robert S. Bolia
Michael A. Vidulich
W. Todd Nelson
The Command and Control Environment
349(1)
Network-Centric Operations
350(1)
C2 Simulation Research
351(14)
U.S. Army Future Combat Systems (FCS) Program
352(1)
U.S. Navy C2 Human Factors Research Programs
353(3)
U.S. Air Force C2 Human Factors Research Programs
356(2)
Simulation and Its Utility for C2 Systems
358(2)
Technical Challenges
360(1)
Collaboration Technologies and C2 Simulation Research
361(4)
Evaluations of Collaboration Technologies
365(1)
References
366(5)
Simulation Advances in Medical Training Laparoscopic Skill Acquisition
371(16)
Elizabeth A. Schmidt-Panos
Mark W. Scerbo
Background: Harm Caused by Medical Errors
371(1)
The Apprenticeship Training Model in Medicine
372(1)
Psychomotor Skill Acquisition
372(2)
Medical Simulators: Part of the Solution
374(1)
Types of Medical Simulators
374(3)
Laparoscopic Surgery and Simulation Technology
377(3)
Laparoscopic Box Trainers
379(1)
Laparoscopic Virtual Reality Trainers
380(1)
MIST VR Learning Curves and Sensitivity
380(1)
Overcoming the Fulcrum Effect
381(1)
Transfer of MIST VR Acquired Skill
381(1)
Conclusion
382(1)
Acknowledgments
383(1)
References
383(4)
Communications and Coordination Training with Speech-Interactive Synthetic Teammates: A Design and Evaluation Case Study
387(30)
Benjamin Bell
Joan M. Ryder
Stacie N. Pratt
Introduction
388(2)
Simulators and the Team Training Gap
388(1)
The Training Problem: Pilot Communication
388(2)
Communication and Coordination Training
390(2)
Training with Speech-Enabled Synthetic Teammates
390(2)
The Genesis of VIPERS
392(1)
Traffic Pattern and Radio Communications
393(1)
Instructional Design Factors
394(6)
Concept of Operations
394(2)
Training Analysis and Knowledge Engineering
396(1)
Syllabus Elements
397(1)
Pattern Orientation
398(1)
Missions
399(1)
Automated Performance Measurement
400(2)
Challenges of Assessment in Simulated Environments
400(2)
VIPERS Training Objectives and Performance Measures
402(1)
System Architecture and Operation
402(3)
Software Architecture
403(1)
Simulation Environment
403(1)
Speech Recognition and Synthesis
404(1)
Hardware Suite
404(1)
User Interface
405(1)
Synthetic Teammate Design
405(2)
Agent Approach
405(1)
Synthetic IP
406(1)
Synthetic RSU Controller
406(1)
Synthetic SPs
406(1)
Training Management Tools
407(1)
Mission Builder
407(1)
User Profile
407(1)
Usability Analysis
407(2)
Preliminary User Studies and Results
408(1)
Field Evaluation
409(4)
Method
409(1)
Subjective Data Collection
409(1)
Objective Data Collection
409(1)
Analysis
410(1)
Results
410(1)
Discussion
411(2)
Conclusion
413(1)
References
414(3)
Appendix A: Glossary of Modeling Terms 417(6)
Appendix B: Glossary of Simulation Terms 423(6)
Appendix C: Glossary of Verification, Validation, and Accreditation Terms 429(2)
Index 431
Peter A. Hancock, Dennis A. Vincenzi, John A. Wise, Mustapha Mouloua