Contributors |
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17 | (2) |
Preface |
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19 | (3) |
Timeline |
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22 | (2) |
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Introduction: The Study of The Human Past |
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24 | (20) |
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25 | (2) |
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26 | (1) |
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The Relevance of World Archaeology |
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27 | (1) |
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The Origins of Archaeology |
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28 | (4) |
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28 | (2) |
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Advances in the 17th and 18th Centuries |
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30 | (1) |
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Developments in the 19th Century |
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30 | (2) |
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32 | (1) |
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Developments in Methodology and Techniques |
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33 | (1) |
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Archaeology and Human Evolution |
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34 | (2) |
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Explaining Change: Archaeological Theories |
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36 | (4) |
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Cultural Ecology and Agency Theory |
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36 | (1) |
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Mechanisms and Patterns of Change |
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37 | (1) |
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Innovation, Diffusion, Emulation, and Migration |
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37 | (1) |
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Linear and Cyclical Patterns |
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38 | (1) |
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Processual and Postprocessual Archaeology |
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39 | (1) |
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Humans in Long-term Perspective |
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40 | (3) |
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Humans and the Environment |
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40 | (1) |
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41 | (1) |
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42 | (1) |
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43 | (1) |
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Further Reading and Suggested Websites |
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43 | (1) |
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PART I THE EVOLUTION OF HUMANITY 6 million to 11,500 years ago |
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44 | (130) |
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46 | (38) |
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Evolution and Human Origins |
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47 | (2) |
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Models of Evolutionary Change |
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48 | (1) |
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The Human Evolutionary Record |
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49 | (1) |
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The Primate Ancestors of Apes and Humans |
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49 | (6) |
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49 | (1) |
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Overview of Primate Evolution |
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50 | (1) |
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Early Anthropoid Features |
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51 | (1) |
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Old World Monkeys and Apes |
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51 | (1) |
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Our Ape Ancestry: The Comparative Anatomical and Genetic Evidence |
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51 | (1) |
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52 | (1) |
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Key Controversy Classifying the Primates |
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52 | (1) |
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53 | (2) |
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The Environmental Background |
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55 | (2) |
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Key Method Reconstruting Paleoenvironments |
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55 | (1) |
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Climate Change and Early Hominin Evolution |
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56 | (1) |
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The Rise of the Earliest Hominins |
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57 | (4) |
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57 | (1) |
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58 | (1) |
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Key Sites Hadar and Laetoli: ``Lucy,'' the ``First Family,'' and Fossil Footsteps |
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59 | (2) |
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The First Stone Tools and the Oldowan |
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61 | (13) |
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61 | (5) |
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Who Made the Oldowan Tools? |
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66 | (1) |
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Key Site Olduvai Gorge: The Grand Canyon of Prehistory |
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67 | (2) |
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Key Controversy Modern Apes as Oldowan Toolmakers? |
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69 | (1) |
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69 | (1) |
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Key Discovery Surprise! Australopithecus garhi: The First Tool-maker? |
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70 | (1) |
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Key Sites Regional Overview of Major Oldowan Sites |
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71 | (3) |
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Key Method Dating Early Hominins and their Archaeology |
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74 | (1) |
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Food Procurement and Diet |
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74 | (4) |
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74 | (2) |
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Key Discovery What were Oldowan Tools Used For? |
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76 | (1) |
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Food for Thought: Diet and Encephalization |
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77 | (1) |
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The Behavior of Oldowan Hominins |
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78 | (2) |
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78 | (1) |
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78 | (1) |
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78 | (1) |
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79 | (1) |
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79 | (1) |
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Art, Ritual, and Language |
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79 | (1) |
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Recent Trends in Approaches to the Oldowan |
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80 | (2) |
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Experiments in Site Formation Processes |
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81 | (1) |
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81 | (1) |
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82 | (1) |
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82 | (1) |
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Further Reading and Suggested Websites |
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83 | (1) |
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Hominin Dispersals in the Old World |
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84 | (40) |
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85 | (8) |
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85 | (1) |
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86 | (2) |
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Human Evolution and the Inferences from the Turkana Boy |
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88 | (1) |
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Key Discovery The Discovery of the Turkana Boy |
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89 | (3) |
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The Relationship of Homo ergaster to Other Hominins |
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92 | (1) |
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93 | (3) |
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The Acheulean Hand Axe Tradition |
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93 | (1) |
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Key Discovery The Acheulean Hand Axe Tradition |
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94 | (1) |
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95 | (1) |
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Variation within the Acheulean Tradition |
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95 | (1) |
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96 | (5) |
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The Discovery and Dating of Homo erectus in Java |
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96 | (2) |
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Key Controversy The Dating of Javan Homo erectus |
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98 | (1) |
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The Discovery and Dating of Homo erectus in China |
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98 | (2) |
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The Archaeology of Chinese Homo erectus |
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100 | (1) |
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The Dispersion of Homo ergaster and the Fate of Homo erectus |
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101 | (5) |
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The Initial Expansion of Homo ergaster from Africa |
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101 | (1) |
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Key Controversy Did Homo ergaster Disperse Partly by Boat? |
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102 | (1) |
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The Expansion of Homo ergaster to Eurasia: The Dmanisi Discoveries |
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102 | (1) |
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Dating the Dmanisi Fossils |
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102 | (2) |
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Evidence that Homo ergaster Persisted to 1 Million Years Ago or Later |
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104 | (1) |
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The Persistence of Homo erectus in Java |
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105 | (1) |
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Homo heidelbergensis and the Earliest Occupation of Europe |
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106 | (6) |
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Key Method Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) Dating |
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107 | (1) |
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Key Site The Gran Dolina TD6 and the History of Cannibalism |
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108 | (2) |
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Brain Expansion and Change within the Hand Axe Tradition |
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110 | (1) |
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The European Origin of the Neanderthals |
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110 | (1) |
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Key Controversy How did Human Fossils Reach the Sima de los Huesos? |
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111 | (1) |
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Evidence for Early Human Behavior apart from Stone Artifacts |
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112 | (9) |
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Raw Materials besides Stone |
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112 | (1) |
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Key Method Uranium-Series Dating |
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113 | (1) |
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114 | (1) |
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115 | (2) |
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117 | (1) |
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Diet and Food Procurement |
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118 | (1) |
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118 | (1) |
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Key Method Luminescence Dating |
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119 | (1) |
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Animal Foods: Hunting and Scavenging |
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120 | (1) |
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121 | (2) |
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Key Controversy Acheulean Big-Game Hunters? |
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122 | (1) |
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Further Reading and Suggested Websites |
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123 | (1) |
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The Rise of Modern Humans |
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124 | (50) |
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127 | (1) |
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Competing Hypotheses for the Origin of Homo sapiens |
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127 | (4) |
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The Multi-regional Evolution Hypothesis |
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128 | (1) |
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The Out of Africa Hypothesis |
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128 | (1) |
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Other Hypotheses and Attempts at Consensus |
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129 | (1) |
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Key Controversy The Complex Fossil Record in Asia and Modern Human Emergence |
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130 | (1) |
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The Anatomy of Homo sapiens |
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131 | (1) |
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Evolution in Low Latitudes: Evidence for the Rise of Modern Humans in Africa |
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132 | (5) |
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132 | (2) |
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Transitional Homo sapiens |
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134 | (3) |
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Anatomically Modern Humans |
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137 | (1) |
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Genetic Keys to the Origins of Modern Humans |
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137 | (3) |
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Mitochondrial DNA and the Theory of an Early African ``Coalescence'' |
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138 | (1) |
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Other Theories and Potential Consensus |
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139 | (1) |
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Mitochondrial DNA and the Evolution of Homo neanderthalensis |
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140 | (1) |
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Archaeology and the Emergence of ``Modern'' Behavior in Middle Stone Age Age Africa |
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140 | (5) |
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141 | (1) |
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Hunting and Dietary Evidence |
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141 | (1) |
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Evidence of Site Modification and Art |
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142 | (2) |
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Key Site Klasies River Mouth: Middle Stone Age Hunters? |
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144 | (1) |
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Evolution in High Latitudes: The Neanderthals |
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145 | (6) |
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The Anatomy of Homo neanderthalensis |
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145 | (1) |
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Exploitation of Resources: Hunting, Gathering, and Scavenging |
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146 | (1) |
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Key Controversy The Evolution of Language |
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147 | (2) |
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The Mousterian Lithic Industry |
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149 | (2) |
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151 | (1) |
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Early Dispersals of Homo sapiens into the Levantine Corridor |
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151 | (2) |
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The Colonization of East Asia and Australia |
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153 | (3) |
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Key Controversy Homo floresiensis: A Small-bodied Hominin from Indonesia |
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154 | (2) |
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The Colonization of Europe, and the Middle to Upper Paleolithic Transition |
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156 | (3) |
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156 | (1) |
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``Transitional'' Industries |
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157 | (1) |
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Key Method Radiocarbon Dating |
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157 | (1) |
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Relations between Neanderthals and Incoming Homo sapiens? |
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158 | (1) |
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Developments in Modern Behavior: The European Upper Paleolithic |
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159 | (6) |
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159 | (1) |
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Key Controversy The Initial Upper Paleolithic and the Emergence of Modern Behavior |
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160 | (1) |
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160 | (1) |
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161 | (1) |
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Key Sites Four Sites with Upper Paleolithic Art |
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162 | (2) |
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Key Controversy The Meaning of ``Venus'' Figurines |
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164 | (1) |
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Late Pleistocene Dispersals: Colonization of the Americas |
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165 | (5) |
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Possible Source Populations |
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166 | (1) |
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Key Controversy Kennewick Man |
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166 | (1) |
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Archaeology and Human Remains |
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167 | (1) |
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Linguistic and Genetic Evidence |
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167 | (1) |
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The Archaeological Evidence for Pre-Clovis Sites |
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168 | (1) |
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Interpreting the Evidence |
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169 | (1) |
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169 | (1) |
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Key Site Monte Verde, Chile |
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170 | (1) |
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170 | (3) |
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Key Controversy Big-Game Extinctions in North America |
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172 | (1) |
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Further Reading and Suggested Websites |
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173 | (1) |
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PART II AFTER THE ICE 11,500 years ago to the Early Civilizations |
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174 | (547) |
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The World Transformed: From Foragers and Farmers to States and Empires |
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176 | (24) |
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Climate Change and Faunal Extinction at the End of the Pleistocene |
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177 | (2) |
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The Early Holocene Environment |
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179 | (4) |
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179 | (2) |
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181 | (1) |
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Hunter-gatherer Adaptations to the Holocene |
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181 | (1) |
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182 | (1) |
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The Beginnings of Agriculture |
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183 | (4) |
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183 | (1) |
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Domestication by Hunter-gatherer Groups |
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183 | (1) |
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The Development of Domesticates |
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184 | (1) |
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Key Method DNA and the Domestication of the Pig |
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185 | (1) |
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The Geography of Domestication |
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186 | (1) |
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186 | (1) |
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The Spread of Agriculture |
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187 | (3) |
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Key Controversy Explaining Agriculture |
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188 | (2) |
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The Consequences of Agriculture |
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190 | (3) |
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190 | (1) |
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191 | (1) |
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191 | (1) |
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192 | (1) |
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Agricultural Intensification |
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192 | (1) |
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Cities, States, and Empires |
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193 | (6) |
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The Development of States |
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194 | (1) |
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The Geography of State Formation |
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194 | (1) |
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Archaeological Features of States |
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195 | (1) |
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Key Controversy Cities, States, and Civilizations Defined and Explained |
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196 | (1) |
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Toward History: The Adoption of Writing |
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196 | (2) |
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198 | (1) |
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199 | (1) |
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Further Reading and Suggested Websites |
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199 | (1) |
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From Foragers to Complex Societies in Southwest Asia |
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200 | (34) |
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The Environmental Setting |
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201 | (3) |
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New Strategies of Settlement and Subsistence: Epipaleolithic Hunter-Gatherers |
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204 | (10) |
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The Early Epipaleolithic in the Levant, c. 20,000-12,000 BC |
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206 | (1) |
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Ohalo II, Neve David, and Uyun al-Hamman |
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206 | (1) |
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Key Site Ohalo II: Epipaleolithic Lifeways in the Levant |
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207 | (1) |
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The Late Epipaleolithic in the Levant, c. 12,000-9600 BC |
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208 | (1) |
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The Discovery of the Natufians |
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208 | (1) |
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Evidence for Natufian Lifeways |
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208 | (2) |
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210 | (1) |
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The Late Epipaleolithic Beyond the Levant |
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210 | (2) |
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Key Site Abu Hureyra: The Transition from Foraging to Farming |
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212 | (2) |
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An Epipaleolithic Summary |
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214 | (1) |
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Culture Change in the Aceramic Neolithic, c. 9600-6900 BC |
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214 | (11) |
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New Stoneworking Technologies |
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215 | (1) |
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Innovations in Art and Ideas |
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216 | (1) |
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The First Large Settlements: Jericho and Catalhoyuk |
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216 | (1) |
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216 | (1) |
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217 | (1) |
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217 | (1) |
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Key Site Jerfel Ahmar: A Neolithic Village |
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218 | (2) |
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Key Site Gobekli Tepe: Religious Structures before Agriculture |
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220 | (1) |
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Communal Buildings and Rituals |
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220 | (2) |
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222 | (2) |
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Burials and Skull Caching |
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224 | (1) |
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The Beginning of Cultivation and Plant and Animal Domestication |
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225 | (6) |
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225 | (1) |
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226 | (2) |
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228 | (1) |
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229 | (1) |
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229 | (1) |
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Social Exchange and Networking |
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230 | (1) |
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Transformation and the Ceramic Neolithic, c. 6900-6000 BC |
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231 | (1) |
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231 | (1) |
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231 | (1) |
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232 | (1) |
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232 | (1) |
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232 | (1) |
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Further Reading and Suggested Websites |
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233 | (1) |
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East Asian Agriculture and Its Impact |
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234 | (30) |
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The Transition to Agriculture in East Asia |
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235 | (9) |
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The Origins of Millet Cultivation: The Yellow River Valley |
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237 | (1) |
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Hunter-gatherer Sites from before c. 7500 BC |
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238 | (1) |
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Agricultural Sites from after c. 6000 BC |
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238 | (2) |
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Key Site Cishan: The Transition to Agriculture in the Yellow River Valley |
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240 | (1) |
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The Origins of Rice Cultivation: The Yangzi River Valley |
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240 | (1) |
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Gathering Wild Rice: Yuchan and Zhangnao |
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240 | (1) |
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The Transition from Wild to Cultivated Rice: Diaotonghuan and Xianrendong |
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241 | (1) |
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The Development of Permanent Villages in the Yangzi Valley |
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242 | (1) |
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Key Controversy The Origins of Rice Cultivation |
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242 | (2) |
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Key Site Bashidang: An Early Agricultural Village |
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244 | (1) |
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The Growth of Agricultural Communities |
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244 | (4) |
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Neolithic Cultures in the Yellow River Valley |
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244 | (1) |
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244 | (1) |
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245 | (1) |
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Neolithic Cultures in the Yangzi River Valley |
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245 | (1) |
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246 | (1) |
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246 | (1) |
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The Majiabang, Songze, and Chengbeixi Cultures |
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247 | (1) |
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247 | (1) |
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The Expansion of Rice Farmers into Southeast Asia |
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248 | (9) |
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Initial Dispersal into Southern China |
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248 | (1) |
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From Southern China into Vietnam |
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249 | (1) |
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The Khorat Plateau, Thailand |
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250 | (1) |
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Early Rice Farmers in Thailand |
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250 | (1) |
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Key Site Ban Non Wat: Hunter-gatherers and Early Rice Farmers |
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251 | (1) |
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Cambodia and the Mekong Delta |
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252 | (1) |
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252 | (1) |
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Khok Phanom Di and Ban Kao |
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252 | (2) |
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Khok Charoen, Non Pai Wai, and Tha Kae |
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254 | (1) |
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Key Site Khok Phanom Di: Sedentary Hunter-fishers |
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254 | (3) |
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The Expansion of Rice Farmers into Korea and Japan |
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257 | (4) |
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257 | (1) |
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258 | (1) |
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258 | (1) |
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259 | (1) |
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Key Discovery Sedentism without Agriculture |
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260 | (1) |
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261 | (2) |
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263 | (1) |
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Further Reading and Suggested Websites |
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263 | (1) |
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Holocene Australia and the Pacific Basin |
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264 | (42) |
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265 | (10) |
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Early Foragers in a Changing Landscape |
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266 | (2) |
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Technology in Uncertain Times |
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268 | (1) |
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Key Site South Molle Quarry: Aboriginal Foragers at the End of the Ice Age |
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269 | (1) |
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Key Controversy Explaining Technological Change in Australia |
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270 | (1) |
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Changing Life in Tasmania |
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270 | (1) |
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Changes in Aboriginal Perceptions of the Landscape |
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271 | (1) |
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Key Controversy Why Did the Tasmanians Stop Eating Fish? |
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272 | (1) |
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The Growth of Trade Networks |
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273 | (1) |
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Population and Settlement Change |
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273 | (1) |
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The Effects of Historic Foreign Contacts |
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274 | (1) |
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The Islands of Southeast Asia and Oceania |
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275 | (4) |
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Key Site Barlambidj: Aboriginal Contact with Southeast Asia |
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275 | (2) |
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Early Human Settlers in Island Southeast Asia |
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277 | (1) |
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Early Agriculturalists in New Guinea |
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277 | (1) |
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Key Discovery Early Farming in the New Guinea Highlands |
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278 | (1) |
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The Austronesian Dispersal |
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279 | (16) |
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Who Are the Austronesians? |
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279 | (1) |
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A Basic History of the Austronesian Languages |
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280 | (2) |
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Key Controversy The Origins of the Austronesians |
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282 | (1) |
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The Archaeology of Early Austronesian Dispersal |
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283 | (1) |
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284 | (1) |
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Dispersals to Southeast Asia and Madagascar |
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284 | (2) |
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Key Site Beinan and the Jade Trade |
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286 | (1) |
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The Colonization of Oceania |
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287 | (1) |
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288 | (1) |
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Key Controversy The Origins of Lapita |
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289 | (1) |
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The Settlement of Polynesia |
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290 | (1) |
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290 | (1) |
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Key Sites Talepakemalai and Teouma |
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291 | (1) |
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Key Controversy Expert Navigation or Sheer Good Luck? |
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|
292 | (2) |
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294 | (1) |
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The Austronesian World After Colonization |
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295 | (6) |
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Polynesian Complex Societies: Easter Island and Elsewhere |
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|
295 | (1) |
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Key Controversy Causes of Landscape Change |
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296 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy Easter Island and South America |
|
|
297 | (1) |
|
Hawai'i and New Zealand: Varying Social Responses to Environmental Constraints |
|
|
298 | (2) |
|
The Chiefdoms of Polynesia: Comparative Ethnographic Perspectives |
|
|
300 | (1) |
|
Theories of Social Evolution |
|
|
301 | (1) |
|
Seaborne Trade and the Transformation of Tribal Society in Southeast Aisa |
|
|
301 | (3) |
|
|
304 | (1) |
|
Further Reading and Suggested Websites |
|
|
305 | (1) |
|
Origins of Food-Producing Economies in the Americas |
|
|
306 | (44) |
|
|
|
|
The Late Paleoindian Period |
|
|
|
|
The Late Paleoindian Period |
|
|
307 | (6) |
|
|
307 | (4) |
|
West of the Rocky Mountains |
|
|
311 | (1) |
|
|
311 | (1) |
|
Central and South America |
|
|
312 | (1) |
|
|
313 | (1) |
|
The Archaic Period, c. 9500 BC onward |
|
|
313 | (1) |
|
The Mexican Archaic and the Origins of Mesoamerican Agriculture, c. 9500-2500 BC |
|
|
313 | (2) |
|
|
315 | (1) |
|
|
316 | (5) |
|
|
316 | (1) |
|
|
316 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy The Domestication of Maize |
|
|
317 | (2) |
|
Models of Agricultural Adoption and Dispersal |
|
|
319 | (1) |
|
Later Agricultural Developments and Systems |
|
|
319 | (2) |
|
|
321 | (9) |
|
Early to Middle Archaic, c. 9500-4000 BC |
|
|
322 | (1) |
|
The Beginnings of Agriculture in the Middle and Late Archaic |
|
|
323 | (1) |
|
Late Archaic Sites and Lifeways |
|
|
324 | (1) |
|
Bacon Bend and Iddins, Tennessee |
|
|
324 | (1) |
|
Key Site Koster: An Archaic Camp in Illinois |
|
|
325 | (1) |
|
The Carlston Annis Shell Mound in West Central Kentucky, and the Rockshelters of Arkansas and Eastern Kentucky |
|
|
326 | (1) |
|
Key Discovery The Archaic Dog |
|
|
326 | (1) |
|
|
327 | (1) |
|
|
327 | (1) |
|
Key Sites Watson Brake and Poverty Point, Louisiana |
|
|
328 | (1) |
|
Early Woodland Period, c. 1000-200 BC |
|
|
329 | (1) |
|
Later Agricultural Developments |
|
|
329 | (1) |
|
|
330 | (1) |
|
Western North America: Alternatives to Agriculture |
|
|
330 | (4) |
|
Great Plains Bison Hunting |
|
|
331 | (1) |
|
The Pacific Northwest Maritime Cultures |
|
|
331 | (1) |
|
The Great Basin Desert Archaic |
|
|
332 | (1) |
|
The Archaic Period in California |
|
|
333 | (1) |
|
The South American Pacific Lowlands |
|
|
334 | (4) |
|
|
334 | (1) |
|
|
334 | (2) |
|
|
336 | (1) |
|
Key Sites La Paloma and Chilca: Archaic Villages of the Peruvian Coast |
|
|
337 | (1) |
|
Southern Chile and Southern Argentina |
|
|
338 | (1) |
|
Key Discovery The Chinchorro Mummies |
|
|
338 | (1) |
|
|
338 | (8) |
|
|
339 | (1) |
|
|
340 | (1) |
|
|
340 | (1) |
|
|
340 | (1) |
|
|
341 | (1) |
|
Key Site Asana: Base Camp and Herding Residence |
|
|
342 | (1) |
|
|
342 | (1) |
|
Andean Animal and Plant Domestication |
|
|
343 | (2) |
|
Key Site Caral and Norte Chico |
|
|
345 | (1) |
|
|
346 | (1) |
|
|
347 | (1) |
|
|
348 | (1) |
|
Further Reading and Suggested Websites |
|
|
349 | (1) |
|
|
350 | (42) |
|
|
The Environmental Setting |
|
|
351 | (3) |
|
Intensification of Hunting, Gathering, and Fishing |
|
|
354 | (6) |
|
Southern and Central Africa |
|
|
355 | (1) |
|
Southern African Rock Art |
|
|
356 | (1) |
|
Northern, Eastern, and Western Africa |
|
|
356 | (1) |
|
North Africa and the Sahara |
|
|
356 | (2) |
|
|
358 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy Symbolism in Southern African Rock Art |
|
|
358 | (1) |
|
|
359 | (1) |
|
The Beginnings of Farming |
|
|
360 | (5) |
|
Key Controversy The Domestication of Cattle in the Sahara |
|
|
361 | (1) |
|
|
361 | (1) |
|
|
362 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy The Enigma of Sorghum Domestication |
|
|
362 | (1) |
|
|
363 | (1) |
|
Northeast and East Africa |
|
|
364 | (1) |
|
Ironworking Societies and the Adoption of Farming South of the Equator |
|
|
365 | (5) |
|
Key Controversy The Origins of African Ironworking |
|
|
366 | (1) |
|
Movements of Bantu-speaking Peoples |
|
|
367 | (1) |
|
|
368 | (1) |
|
Domesticated Plants and Animals |
|
|
369 | (1) |
|
Interaction Between Hunter-Gatherers and Farmers |
|
|
369 | (1) |
|
Urbanization and the Growth of Social Complexity in Ancient Egypt |
|
|
370 | (10) |
|
|
371 | (1) |
|
The Early Dynastic Period |
|
|
372 | (1) |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
The First and Second Intermediate Periods and the Middle Kingdom |
|
|
374 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy How ``African'' was Ancient Egypt? |
|
|
375 | (1) |
|
Key Discovery New Insights from the Pyramids |
|
|
376 | (1) |
|
The New Kingdom and After |
|
|
377 | (3) |
|
Urbanization and State Formation in the Rest of Africa |
|
|
380 | (7) |
|
|
380 | (1) |
|
|
380 | (1) |
|
|
380 | (2) |
|
|
382 | (1) |
|
Key Site Jenne-jeno: Origins of Urbanism in West Africa |
|
|
383 | (1) |
|
|
383 | (1) |
|
Eastern, Southern, and Central Africa |
|
|
384 | (1) |
|
|
385 | (1) |
|
Remoter Parts of Central Africa |
|
|
385 | (1) |
|
|
386 | (1) |
|
Africa and the Outside World |
|
|
387 | (3) |
|
The Mediterranean, Southwest Asia, and the Red Sea |
|
|
387 | (1) |
|
|
388 | (1) |
|
|
388 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy What Factors Led to the Formation of States in Africa? |
|
|
389 | (1) |
|
|
390 | (1) |
|
|
390 | (1) |
|
Further Reading and Suggested Websites |
|
|
391 | (1) |
|
|
392 | (40) |
|
|
|
393 | (7) |
|
After the Ice: Europe Transformed |
|
|
394 | (2) |
|
|
396 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy The Demographic History of Early Postglacial Europe |
|
|
397 | (1) |
|
Key Site Star Carr: A Mesolithic Campsite in Northeast England |
|
|
398 | (2) |
|
|
400 | (2) |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
Figurines and Evidence for Social Complexity |
|
|
401 | (1) |
|
The Introduction of Metals |
|
|
402 | (1) |
|
|
402 | (4) |
|
Key Site The Varna Cemetery |
|
|
403 | (1) |
|
|
404 | (1) |
|
The Emergence of Social Complexity |
|
|
405 | (1) |
|
|
406 | (5) |
|
|
407 | (1) |
|
Key Discovery The ``Iceman'' |
|
|
408 | (1) |
|
|
408 | (2) |
|
Key Site The Talheim Death Pit |
|
|
410 | (1) |
|
|
411 | (4) |
|
|
411 | (1) |
|
Key Site The Bandkeramik Settlements at Langweiler, Germany |
|
|
412 | (1) |
|
|
413 | (2) |
|
|
415 | (4) |
|
The Ertebølle-Ellerbek and Later Cultures |
|
|
415 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy Stonehenge: Symbolism and Ceremony |
|
|
416 | (2) |
|
Neolithic Burial Practices |
|
|
418 | (1) |
|
Toward Complexity: Europe from 2500 BC to the Roman Empire |
|
|
419 | (1) |
|
Later Prehistoric Societies in Central and Western Europe |
|
|
420 | (4) |
|
Beaker Pottery and Metalwork |
|
|
420 | (2) |
|
Small-scale Settlement and Long-distance Contact |
|
|
422 | (1) |
|
|
423 | (1) |
|
Later Prehistoric Societies in Eastern Europe |
|
|
424 | (2) |
|
|
425 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy Rock Art - Representation of Myth or Reality? |
|
|
426 | (1) |
|
European Society at the Dawn of History |
|
|
426 | (3) |
|
European Societies Beyond the Mediterranean |
|
|
427 | (1) |
|
The So-called ``Celtic'' Societies |
|
|
428 | (1) |
|
|
428 | (1) |
|
The Expansion of Roman Control |
|
|
429 | (1) |
|
|
429 | (2) |
|
Key Controversy Who Were the Celts? |
|
|
430 | (1) |
|
|
431 | (1) |
|
Peoples and Complex Societies of Ancient Southwest Asia |
|
|
432 | (40) |
|
|
Farmers of the Early Chalcolithic: The Halaf and Ubaid Periods, c. 6000-4200 BC |
|
|
433 | (5) |
|
The Halaf Period, c. 6000-5400 BC |
|
|
433 | (3) |
|
|
436 | (1) |
|
|
436 | (1) |
|
The Ubaid Period, c. 5900-4200 BC |
|
|
436 | (1) |
|
|
437 | (1) |
|
Ubaid Sites Beyond Lower Mesopotamia |
|
|
437 | (1) |
|
Urban Communities of the Late Chalcolithic: The Uruk Period, c. 4200-3000 BC |
|
|
438 | (4) |
|
The Lower Mesopotamian Site of Uruk |
|
|
438 | (2) |
|
|
440 | (1) |
|
|
441 | (1) |
|
|
441 | (1) |
|
City-States, Kingdoms, and Empires of the Early Bronze Age, c. 3000-2000 BC |
|
|
442 | (6) |
|
|
443 | (1) |
|
Upper Mesopotamian, Iranian, and Anatolian Cultures |
|
|
444 | (2) |
|
|
446 | (1) |
|
Kingdoms and Empires of the Later 3rd Millennium BC |
|
|
446 | (2) |
|
Key Controversy The End of the Early Bronze Age |
|
|
448 | (1) |
|
Commerce and Conflict in the Middle Bronze Age |
|
|
448 | (7) |
|
Lower Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf |
|
|
449 | (1) |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
Upper Mesopotamia and the Levant |
|
|
450 | (2) |
|
Upper Mesopotamia and Anatolia |
|
|
452 | (1) |
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
Key Site Hattusa, Capital of the Hittites |
|
|
454 | (1) |
|
Empires and States at War and Peace: The Late Bronze Age |
|
|
455 | (8) |
|
Anatolia and the Hittites |
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
The Levant in the Late Bronze Age |
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
|
457 | (1) |
|
Upper Mesopotamia and Syria: Hurrian Mittani |
|
|
458 | (1) |
|
Key Site The Uluburun Shipwreck |
|
|
459 | (1) |
|
|
460 | (1) |
|
Lower Mesopotamia: Kassite Babylonia |
|
|
461 | (1) |
|
|
462 | (1) |
|
The End of the Late Bronze Age |
|
|
463 | (1) |
|
New and Resurgent Powers of the Iron Age |
|
|
463 | (6) |
|
The Levant: Philistines, Phoenicians, Neo-Hittites |
|
|
463 | (1) |
|
|
463 | (1) |
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
The Levant: Israel and Judah |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
|
466 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy The Old Testament and Archaeology |
|
|
466 | (2) |
|
|
468 | (1) |
|
The Achaemenid Empire and the Conquest of Southwest Asia |
|
|
468 | (1) |
|
|
469 | (2) |
|
Key Controversy Iran's Archaeological Heritage Under Threat |
|
|
470 | (1) |
|
Further Reading and Suggested Websites |
|
|
471 | (1) |
|
|
472 | (46) |
|
|
|
Defining the Mediterranean, Redefining its Study |
|
|
473 | (3) |
|
|
476 | (10) |
|
Neolithic and Copper Age Settlement |
|
|
477 | (1) |
|
The Aegean Early Bronze Age |
|
|
477 | (1) |
|
|
478 | (1) |
|
The Greek Mainland and Troy |
|
|
478 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy Early Cycladic Marble Figures |
|
|
479 | (1) |
|
Minoan Crete: The Palace Period |
|
|
480 | (1) |
|
Features and Functions of the Minoan Palace |
|
|
480 | (2) |
|
|
482 | (1) |
|
|
483 | (1) |
|
The End of the Minoan Palaces |
|
|
483 | (1) |
|
|
483 | (1) |
|
|
483 | (2) |
|
|
485 | (1) |
|
Mycenaean Society and Overseas Influence |
|
|
485 | (1) |
|
The End of the Aegean Bronze Age |
|
|
486 | (1) |
|
Cultural Variety in the 1st Millennium BC |
|
|
486 | (14) |
|
|
486 | (1) |
|
|
486 | (1) |
|
|
486 | (1) |
|
|
487 | (1) |
|
|
488 | (1) |
|
Key Site The Necropolis at Metapontum |
|
|
489 | (1) |
|
The Phoenicians and Phoenician Expansion |
|
|
490 | (1) |
|
The Etruscans and the Italian Peninsula |
|
|
491 | (2) |
|
Key Controversy Who Were the Etruscans? |
|
|
493 | (1) |
|
The Structure of the Archaic and Classical Greek Polis |
|
|
493 | (1) |
|
The Hinterland: The Economic Foundation of the City |
|
|
493 | (1) |
|
Key Discovery The Parthenon |
|
|
494 | (2) |
|
Key Sites Olympia and Other Panhellenic Sanctuaries |
|
|
496 | (1) |
|
Outside the City Walls: The Cemetery and the Countryside |
|
|
496 | (1) |
|
Life Within the City Walls |
|
|
497 | (2) |
|
The Commonality of Greek Culture |
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
Growing Powers, Growing Territories |
|
|
500 | (6) |
|
|
500 | (1) |
|
The Conquests of Alexander |
|
|
500 | (1) |
|
|
501 | (1) |
|
Key Site Alexandria-by-Egypt |
|
|
502 | (1) |
|
Carthage and the Carthaginian Empire |
|
|
503 | (1) |
|
|
504 | (1) |
|
|
505 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy Farming the Desert: A Lesson from Libya |
|
|
506 | (1) |
|
|
506 | (10) |
|
Rome, Center of the World |
|
|
507 | (2) |
|
The Provinces and Frontiers |
|
|
509 | (1) |
|
Reactions to Roman Annexation |
|
|
510 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy Pompeii - All Problems Solved? |
|
|
510 | (2) |
|
Key Site The Mahdia Shipwreck |
|
|
512 | (2) |
|
|
514 | (1) |
|
|
514 | (1) |
|
|
515 | (1) |
|
|
516 | (1) |
|
Further Reading and Suggested Websites |
|
|
517 | (1) |
|
South Asia: From Early Villages to Buddhism |
|
|
518 | (34) |
|
|
|
519 | (3) |
|
The Foundations: c. 26,000-6500 BC |
|
|
522 | (2) |
|
|
522 | (1) |
|
|
522 | (1) |
|
|
522 | (1) |
|
|
523 | (1) |
|
|
523 | (1) |
|
Early Neolithic Villages: The First Food Producers |
|
|
524 | (4) |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
Key Site Mehragarh: An Early Farming Community |
|
|
524 | (2) |
|
Kashmir and the Swat Valley |
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
|
527 | (1) |
|
|
527 | (1) |
|
An Era of Regionalization: Early Harappan Proto-Urban Forms |
|
|
528 | (4) |
|
Key Controversy Foreign Contact and State Formation 1: The Indus Cities |
|
|
529 | (1) |
|
Kot Diji and Early Pointers Toward the Indus Civilization |
|
|
530 | (2) |
|
An Era of Integration: The Indus Civilization, c. 2600-1900 BC |
|
|
532 | (4) |
|
Key Controversy The Decipherment of the Indus Script |
|
|
532 | (1) |
|
A Hierarchy of Settlement Forms |
|
|
533 | (1) |
|
|
533 | (1) |
|
Key Sites Mohenjo-daro and Harappa |
|
|
534 | (2) |
|
Character of the Indus Civilization |
|
|
536 | (1) |
|
|
536 | (1) |
|
|
536 | (1) |
|
An Era of Localization: The Eclipse of the Indus Civilization, c. 1900 BC |
|
|
536 | (4) |
|
Key Controversy The End of the Indus Cities |
|
|
537 | (1) |
|
|
538 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy The Antiquity of Caste |
|
|
538 | (1) |
|
|
539 | (1) |
|
|
539 | (1) |
|
|
539 | (1) |
|
|
540 | (1) |
|
The Re-Emergence of Regionalized Complexity, c. 1200-500 BC |
|
|
540 | (4) |
|
Developments in the Northwest and East |
|
|
540 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy Foreign Contact and State Formation 2: The Early Historic Cities |
|
|
541 | (1) |
|
|
542 | (1) |
|
|
542 | (1) |
|
Southern India and Sri Lanka |
|
|
543 | (1) |
|
|
544 | (1) |
|
Reintegration: The Early Historic Empires, c. 500 BC-AD 320 |
|
|
544 | (7) |
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy Early Historic Hierarchy and Heterarchies |
|
|
547 | (1) |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
The Kushan, Satavahana, and Later Dynasties |
|
|
549 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy Roman Contact and the Origins of Indian Ocean Trade |
|
|
550 | (1) |
|
|
551 | (1) |
|
Further Reading and Suggested Website |
|
|
551 | (1) |
|
Complex Societies of East and Southeast Asia |
|
|
552 | (42) |
|
|
|
553 | (21) |
|
The Rise of Complex Societies |
|
|
553 | (1) |
|
|
553 | (1) |
|
|
554 | (1) |
|
|
555 | (1) |
|
The Lower Xiajiadian Culture |
|
|
556 | (1) |
|
The Xia Dynasty, c. 1700-1500 BC |
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
The Shang Dynasty, c. 1500-1045 BC |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
Key Discovery The Origins of Chinese Writing |
|
|
558 | (3) |
|
Key Site Zhengzhou: A Shang Capital |
|
|
561 | (1) |
|
|
562 | (1) |
|
Key Discovery Southern Rivals to Shang Culture |
|
|
562 | (1) |
|
The Western Zhou Dynasty, 1045-771 BC |
|
|
563 | (1) |
|
|
564 | (1) |
|
Western Zhou Bronzeworking |
|
|
565 | (1) |
|
The Eastern Zhou Dynasty, 770-221 BC |
|
|
566 | (1) |
|
Key Discovery Confucianism |
|
|
567 | (1) |
|
The Qin Dynasty, 221-207 BC |
|
|
568 | (1) |
|
The Han Dynasty, 206 BC-AD 220 |
|
|
569 | (1) |
|
|
569 | (1) |
|
|
570 | (1) |
|
|
571 | (1) |
|
Key Site Tonglushan: A Copper-Mining Site |
|
|
571 | (1) |
|
|
572 | (2) |
|
|
574 | (3) |
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
|
575 | (1) |
|
|
575 | (1) |
|
|
576 | (1) |
|
|
577 | (5) |
|
|
577 | (1) |
|
The Growth of Yamato Power |
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
|
579 | (1) |
|
|
580 | (1) |
|
The Transition from Yamato to Nara |
|
|
581 | (1) |
|
The Central Asian Silk Road |
|
|
582 | (3) |
|
|
582 | (1) |
|
|
582 | (1) |
|
Key Discovery The Origins of Chinese Metallurgy |
|
|
583 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy The Origins of Southeast Asian Indianized States |
|
|
584 | (1) |
|
The Southeast Asian Maritime Silk Road |
|
|
585 | (8) |
|
|
585 | (1) |
|
|
585 | (3) |
|
Key Site Angkor: Capital City of the Khmer |
|
|
588 | (2) |
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
The Dvaravati of Thailand |
|
|
591 | (1) |
|
|
591 | (2) |
|
|
593 | (1) |
|
|
593 | (1) |
|
Mesoamerican Civilization |
|
|
594 | (46) |
|
|
|
The Landscape and its Peoples |
|
|
595 | (3) |
|
The Spread of Agriculture and the Rise of Complex Societies in Preclassic Mesoamerica |
|
|
598 | (4) |
|
Key Discovery The Mesoamerican Ball Game |
|
|
599 | (1) |
|
Key Site Paso de la Amada and the Emergence of Social Complexity |
|
|
600 | (1) |
|
The First Agricultural Communities |
|
|
601 | (1) |
|
The Olmecs, c. 1200-400 BC (Early to Middle Preclassic) |
|
|
601 | (1) |
|
|
602 | (3) |
|
The Olmecs as a ``Mother Culture''? |
|
|
603 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy Were the Olmecs Mesoamerica's ``Mother Culture''? |
|
|
604 | (1) |
|
West Mexican Polities, c. 1500 BC-AD 400 |
|
|
605 | (1) |
|
Late Preclassic Mesoamerica |
|
|
605 | (8) |
|
Key Discovery The Mesoamerican Calendar |
|
|
606 | (1) |
|
|
607 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy Who Invented Mesoamerican Writing? |
|
|
608 | (2) |
|
Kings, Courts, and Cities |
|
|
610 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy Metallurgy in Mesoamerica |
|
|
611 | (1) |
|
|
612 | (1) |
|
|
613 | (1) |
|
The Classic Period: Teotihuacan and its Neighbors |
|
|
613 | (8) |
|
|
614 | (2) |
|
Teotihuacan's Wider Influence: The Middle Horizon |
|
|
616 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy The Teotihuacan Writing System |
|
|
617 | (1) |
|
Key Site Classic Monte Alban |
|
|
618 | (2) |
|
Cholula, Cantona and the Teuchitlan Cultural Tradition-Independent Polities? |
|
|
620 | (1) |
|
The Demise of Teotihuacan |
|
|
620 | (1) |
|
Epiclassic Mesoamerica, AD 600-900 |
|
|
621 | (1) |
|
|
622 | (5) |
|
|
624 | (1) |
|
|
624 | (1) |
|
|
624 | (1) |
|
|
625 | (1) |
|
|
625 | (1) |
|
|
626 | (1) |
|
|
626 | (1) |
|
|
627 | (6) |
|
Key Controversy Mesoamerican Urbanism |
|
|
628 | (1) |
|
|
628 | (2) |
|
Key Controversy The Collapse of Maya Civilization |
|
|
630 | (1) |
|
|
631 | (1) |
|
|
631 | (1) |
|
|
632 | (1) |
|
|
632 | (1) |
|
Mesoamerica Discovered: What the Spaniards Found |
|
|
633 | (6) |
|
The Maya of the Early 16th Century |
|
|
633 | (1) |
|
The Aztecs and the Late Horizon: History and Myth |
|
|
633 | (1) |
|
Key Site Tenochtitlan: The Aztec Capital |
|
|
634 | (2) |
|
|
636 | (1) |
|
|
637 | (1) |
|
|
638 | (1) |
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
Further Reading and Suggested Websites |
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
From Village to Empire in South America |
|
|
640 | (38) |
|
|
|
Main Environmental Regions |
|
|
641 | (4) |
|
|
641 | (1) |
|
|
641 | (1) |
|
|
641 | (1) |
|
|
642 | (2) |
|
|
644 | (1) |
|
|
644 | (1) |
|
|
644 | (1) |
|
|
645 | (1) |
|
The Andes and the Desert Coast |
|
|
645 | (1) |
|
Amazonia and the Atlantic Coast |
|
|
645 | (1) |
|
Preceramic (Prepottery) Civilization in the Andes, c. 3000-1800 BC |
|
|
646 | (4) |
|
Early Monumental Construction in Peru |
|
|
646 | (1) |
|
Sunken Courts and Sacred Fires |
|
|
646 | (2) |
|
Key Controversy Preceramic Diet and Economy |
|
|
648 | (1) |
|
Coastal and Inland Monuments |
|
|
648 | (1) |
|
|
649 | (1) |
|
|
649 | (1) |
|
Civilization Reconfigured: The Initial Period and the Early Horizon |
|
|
650 | (5) |
|
The Initial Period, c. 1800-400 BC |
|
|
650 | (1) |
|
Chavin and the Early Horizon, c. 400-200 BC |
|
|
651 | (1) |
|
|
652 | (2) |
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
Andean Confederacies and States in the Early Intermediate Period, c. 200 BC-AD 650 |
|
|
655 | (5) |
|
Gallinazo, Moche, and the North Coast |
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
The Temples of the Sun and the Moon |
|
|
656 | (1) |
|
Key Site Sipan and the Presentation Theme |
|
|
657 | (2) |
|
Nazca and the South Coast |
|
|
659 | (1) |
|
|
659 | (1) |
|
The Rise and Fall of the Andean Empires |
|
|
660 | (8) |
|
The Middle Horizon, c. AD 650-1000: Tiwanaku and Wari |
|
|
660 | (2) |
|
The Late Intermediate Period, c. 1000-1470: Lambayeque and Chimor |
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
Lambayeque and Batan Grande |
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
|
663 | (2) |
|
The Late Horizon, 1476-1533: Cuzco and the Incas |
|
|
665 | (1) |
|
|
665 | (1) |
|
Cuzco and the Trappings of Empire |
|
|
665 | (2) |
|
Key Site The Sacred Valley of the Incas and Machu Picchu |
|
|
667 | (1) |
|
|
668 | (1) |
|
The Amazonian Formative Period, c. 1000 BC-AD 500 |
|
|
668 | (1) |
|
|
668 | (1) |
|
The Archaeological Evidence |
|
|
669 | (1) |
|
Regionalism and Complexity in Amazonia, c. AD 1-1500 |
|
|
669 | (8) |
|
Key Controversy The Rank Revolution |
|
|
670 | (1) |
|
|
670 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy Amazonian ``Dark Earths'' and Anthropogenic Landscapes |
|
|
671 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy Amazonian Mound Builders |
|
|
672 | (1) |
|
|
673 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy Amazonian Urbanism? |
|
|
674 | (1) |
|
|
675 | (1) |
|
The Orinoco and the Caribbean |
|
|
675 | (1) |
|
|
676 | (1) |
|
|
677 | (1) |
|
Further Reading and Suggested Websites |
|
|
677 | (1) |
|
Complex Societies of North America |
|
|
678 | (38) |
|
|
|
|
681 | (10) |
|
Adena and Hopewell: The Early and Middle Woodland Period, c. 800 BC-AD 400 |
|
|
681 | (1) |
|
|
681 | (1) |
|
Exchange Systems and Cultural Ties |
|
|
682 | (1) |
|
The Beginning of Food-producing Economies |
|
|
683 | (1) |
|
Settlement Patterns in the Late Woodland Period, c. AD 400-1000 |
|
|
684 | (1) |
|
|
685 | (1) |
|
Warfare, Maize, and the Rise of Chiefdoms |
|
|
686 | (1) |
|
The Mississippian Period Mound Centers and Villages, AD 1000-15th/16th Century |
|
|
687 | (1) |
|
|
687 | (1) |
|
|
688 | (1) |
|
Settlement Patterns and Food-procurement Strategies |
|
|
688 | (1) |
|
Increased Tensions among Northern Tribes |
|
|
689 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy The Size and Influence of Cahokia |
|
|
690 | (1) |
|
|
691 | (11) |
|
Preclassic and Classic Hohokam, c. AD 700-1450 |
|
|
692 | (1) |
|
Key Discovery Hohokam Ball Courts |
|
|
693 | (1) |
|
Pueblo Villages on the Colorado Plateau |
|
|
694 | (1) |
|
|
695 | (1) |
|
Pueblo I Settlement Patterns, c. AD 750-900 |
|
|
695 | (1) |
|
Key Method Tree-ring Dating |
|
|
696 | (1) |
|
Pueblo II: The Chaco Phenomenon, c. AD 900-1150 |
|
|
697 | (1) |
|
|
697 | (1) |
|
Key Controversy Chaco's Population During the Bonito Phase |
|
|
698 | (1) |
|
Population and Agriculture |
|
|
699 | (1) |
|
Pueblo III: Regional Population Shifts, c. AD 1150-1300 |
|
|
699 | (2) |
|
Pueblo IV: Abandonment of the Colorado Plateau, 14th and 15th Centuries AD |
|
|
701 | (1) |
|
|
701 | (1) |
|
|
702 | (1) |
|
|
702 | (4) |
|
|
703 | (1) |
|
|
703 | (1) |
|
Key Site Crow Creek: Scene of a Massacre |
|
|
704 | (1) |
|
|
705 | (1) |
|
|
706 | (3) |
|
|
706 | (1) |
|
|
707 | (1) |
|
|
707 | (1) |
|
Warfare and Population Decline |
|
|
708 | (1) |
|
|
708 | (1) |
|
|
709 | (3) |
|
The Dorset and Thule Cultures |
|
|
709 | (1) |
|
Key Site L'Anse aux Meadows |
|
|
710 | (2) |
|
The Collision of Two Worlds |
|
|
712 | (1) |
|
|
712 | (3) |
|
Key Controversy Native American Population on the Eve of European Contact |
|
|
713 | (1) |
|
|
714 | (1) |
|
Further Reading and Suggested Websites |
|
|
715 | (1) |
|
The Human Past: Retrospect and Prospect |
|
|
716 | (5) |
|
|
|
717 | (1) |
|
Intensification and Degradation |
|
|
718 | (1) |
|
|
719 | (1) |
|
Climate Change and Human Society |
|
|
720 | (1) |
Glossary |
|
721 | (3) |
Bibliography |
|
724 | (35) |
Sources of Illustrations |
|
759 | (3) |
Index |
|
762 | |