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E-grāmata: Introduction to Nutrition and Metabolism

(University College London, UK), (Robert Gordon University, Scotland)
  • Formāts: 452 pages
  • Izdošanas datums: 04-Feb-2021
  • Izdevniecība: CRC Press
  • Valoda: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781000330274
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Introduction to Nutrition and MetabolismPalielināt
  • Formāts: 452 pages
  • Izdošanas datums: 04-Feb-2021
  • Izdevniecība: CRC Press
  • Valoda: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781000330274
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"Introduction to Nutrition and Metabolism equips readers with an understanding of the scientific basis of what we call a healthy diet. Now in its sixth edition, this highly recognized textbook provides clear explanations of how nutrients are metabolized and gives explains the principles of biochemistry needed for comprehending the science of nutrition. This full-color textbook explores the need for food and the uses to which food is put in the body, as well as the interactions between health and diet. Outlining the scientific basis behind nutritional requirements and recommendations, this new edition has been extensively revised to reflect current knowledge"--

Introduction to Nutrition and Metabolism equips readers with an understanding of the scientific basis of what we call a healthy diet. Now in its sixth edition, this highly recognized textbook provides clear explanations of how nutrients are metabolized and gives explains the principles of biochemistry needed for comprehending the science of nutrition.

This full-color textbook explores the need for food and the uses to which food is put in the body, as well as the interactions between health and diet. Outlining the scientific basis behind nutritional requirements and recommendations, this new edition has been extensively revised to reflect current knowledge.

Features:

  • Lists key objectives at the beginning, and key points at the end of each chapter.
  • Accompanying online resources include interactive tutorial exercises based on interpretation of clinical and research data.
  • Covers topics including: Chemical reactions and catalysis by enzymes; the role of ATP; digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, fats and proteins; issues associated with being overweight; problems of malnutrition; diet and health; and vitamin and mineral requirements and functions.
  • Updated sections focus on the interaction of the gut microbiome and epigenetics with our metabolic responses to diet.
  • Provides a foundation of scientific knowledge for the interpretation and evaluation of future advances in nutrition and health sciences.

Following its predecessors, this sixth edition is relevant to any student or practitioner interested in how diet influences our health, including in the fields of nutrition, dietetics, medicine and public health.

Recenzijas

Amy Hess Fischl, MS RDN LDN BC-ADM CDCES(University of Chicago Medical Center)**Description** This sixth edition of a primer of nutritional biochemistry, coming seven years after the last edition, builds on previous content to include key emerging areas of nutrition research, specifically the gut microbiome and epigenetics.**Purpose** The purpose is to enable readers to gain a working knowledge of how nutrients are metabolized and how they influence our metabolic status since these boiling blocks of knowledge are key to our relationship with food. Nutritional biochemistry is crucial to our understanding of the scientific basis behind eating principles. The book meets these objectives.**Audience** The book is written for "those using this information in their studies," which I consider to be nutrition students and nutrition practitioners. The book meets the needs of this audience. The lead author has been part of this book since the first edition. The second author also appears to be a credible authority as a nutrition lecturer and professor.**Features** The eleven chapters cover the key topics in nutritional biochemistry: micronutrients, enzymes and metabolic pathways, the role of ATP, digestion and absorption, metabolism of the macronutrients. The first chapter also delves into why we eat and spends a little time discussing religion, cultural differences, availability, and social status, which is a practical way to lay the framework for the information the book provides. The chapter on diet and health adds nutrition genomics to the conversation as well. While the book is laden with key content, the lead author also provides an additional resource on a website he controls called "The Virtual Tutorial." This has interactive exercises to help readers understand the metabolism of energy, carbohydrate, lipids, and protein. The author suggests that the exercises can be completed alone or in a group "gathered around the same computer." While the website is not formally part of the book, it does appear that it would be helpful for readers to test their knowledge in a more tangible way.**Assessment** This book is a perfectly acceptable option for students who are required to take a nutritional biochemistry course. Given the time between editions, this update is justified.-Weighted Numerical Score: 73 - 3 Stars Amy Hess Fischl, MS RDN LDN BC-ADM CDCES(University of Chicago Medical Center)  **Description** This sixth edition of a primer of nutritional biochemistry, coming seven years after the last edition, builds on previous content to include key emerging areas of nutrition research, specifically the gut microbiome and epigenetics.*Purpose** The purpose is to enable readers to gain a working knowledge of how nutrients are metabolized and how they influence our metabolic status since these boiling blocks of knowledge are key to our relationship with food. Nutritional biochemistry is crucial to our understanding of the scientific basis behind eating principles. The book meets these objectives.**Audience** The book is written for "those using this information in their studies," which I consider to be nutrition students and nutrition practitioners. The book meets the needs of this audience. The lead author has been part of this book since the first edition. The second author also appears to be a credible authority as a nutrition lecturer and professor.**Features** The eleven chapters cover the key topics in nutritional biochemistry: micronutrients, enzymes and metabolic pathways, the role of ATP, digestion and absorption, metabolism of the macronutrients. The first chapter also delves into why we eat and spends a little time discussing religion, cultural differences, availability, and social status, which is a practical way to lay the framework for the information the book provides. The chapter on diet and health adds nutrition genomics to the conversation as well. While the book is laden with key content, the lead author also provides an additional resource on a website he controls called "The Virtual Tutorial." This has interactive exercises to help readers understand the metabolism of energy, carbohydrate, lipids, and protein. The author suggests that the exercises can be completed alone or in a group "gathered around the same computer." While the website is not formally part of the book, it does appear that it would be helpful for readers to test their knowledge in a more tangible way.**Assessment** This book is a perfectly acceptable option for students who are required to take a nutritional biochemistry course. Given the time between editions, this update is justified.--Weighted Numerical Score: 73 - 3 Stars

Preface xvii
Authors xix
Additional Resources on the Website: Metabolism Online - The Virtual Tutorial xxi
Chapter 1 Why Eat? 1(20)
1.1 The Need for Water
1(2)
1.2 The Need for Energy
3(1)
1.2.1 Units of Energy
4(1)
1.3 Metabolic Fuels
4(2)
1.3.1 The Need for Carbohydrate and Fat
5(1)
1.3.2 The Need for Protein
6(1)
1.3.3 The Need for Micronutrients: Minerals and Vitamins
6(1)
1.4 Hunger and Appetite
6(15)
1.4.1 Hunger and Satiety: Short-Term Control of Feeding
7(3)
1.4.1.1 Nutrient Sensing in the Hypothalamus
9(1)
1.4.1.2 Ghrelin: The Appetite-Stimulating Hormone
9(1)
1.4.2 Long-Term Control of Food Intake and Energy Expenditure: The Hormone Leptin
10(1)
1.4.3 Appetite
11(2)
1.4.3.1 Taste and Flavor
11(2)
1.4.4 Why Do People Eat What They Do?
13(4)
1.4.4.1 The Availability and Cost of Food
13(1)
1.4.4.2 Religion, Habit and Tradition
13(2)
1.4.4.3 Organic Foods
15(1)
1.4.4.4 Luxury Status of Scarce and Expensive Foods
15(1)
1.4.4.5 Social Functions of Food
16(1)
1.4.4.6 Food Allergy and Intolerance
16(1)
1.4.5 Eating Disorders
17(4)
1.4.5.1 Anorexia Nervosa
18(1)
1.4.5.2 Bulimia Nervosa
19(1)
1.4.5.3 Binge Eating Disorder
19(1)
1.4.5.4 Other Eating Disorders
19(2)
Chapter 2 Enzymes and Metabolic Pathways 21(32)
2.1 Chemical Reactions: Breaking and Making Covalent Bonds
21(3)
2.1.1 Equilibrium
23(1)
2.1.2 Catalysis
24(1)
2.2 Enzymes
24(4)
2.2.1 Specificity of Enzymes
26(1)
2.2.2 Stages in an Enzyme-Catalyzed Reaction
27(1)
2.2.3 Units of Enzyme Activity
28(1)
2.3 Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
28(11)
2.3.1 The Effect of pH
28(1)
2.3.2 The Effect of Temperature
29(1)
2.3.3 The Effect of Substrate Concentration
30(6)
2.3.3.1 Experimental Determination of Km and Vmax
33(1)
2.3.3.2 Enzymes with Two Substrates
34(1)
2.3.3.3 Cooperative (Allosteric) Enzymes
35(1)
2.3.4 Inhibition of Enzyme Activity
36(3)
2.3.4.1 Irreversible Inhibitors
36(1)
2.3.4.2 Competitive Reversible Inhibitors
36(1)
2.3.4.3 Noncompetitive Reversible Inhibitors
37(2)
2.3.4.4 Uncompetitive Reversible Inhibitors
39(1)
2.4 Coenzymes and Prosthetic Groups
39(5)
2.4.1 Coenzymes and Metal Ions in Oxidation and Reduction Reactions
40(5)
2.4.1.1 Metal Ions
41(1)
2.4.1.2 Riboflavin and Flavoproteins
41(1)
2.4.1.3 The Nicotinamide Nucleotide Coenzymes: NAD and NADP
42(2)
2.5 The Classification and Naming of Enzymes
44(1)
2.6 Metabolic Pathways
45(5)
2.6.1 Linear and Branched Pathways
47(1)
2.6.2 Spiral or Looped Reaction Sequences
47(1)
2.6.3 Cyclic Pathways
47(3)
2.7 Enzymes in Clinical Chemistry and Medicine
50(3)
2.7.1 Measurement of Metabolites in Blood, Urine and Tissue Samples
50(1)
2.7.2 Measurement of Enzymes in Blood Samples
50(1)
2.7.3 Assessment of Vitamin Nutritional Status
51(2)
Chapter 3 The Role of ATP in Metabolism 53(30)
3.1 Adenine Nucleotides
53(1)
3.2 Functions of ATP
54(11)
3.2.1 The Role of ATP in Endothermic Reactions
55(2)
3.2.2 Transport of Materials across Cell Membranes
57(5)
3.2.2.1 Protein Binding for Concentrative Uptake
58(1)
3.2.2.2 Metabolic Trapping
58(1)
3.2.2.3 Active Transport
58(1)
3.2.2.4 P-Type Transporters
58(1)
3.2.2.5 ATP-Binding Cassette (ABC) Transporters
58(3)
3.2.2.6 Sodium Pump
61(1)
3.2.3 The Role of ATP in Muscle Contraction
62(3)
3.2.3.1 Creatine Phosphate in Muscle
64(1)
3.3 Phosphorylation of ADP to ATP
65(18)
3.3.1 Oxidative Phosphorylation: ATP Synthesis Linked to the Oxidation of Metabolic Fuels
65(21)
3.3.1.1 The Mitochondrion
67(2)
3.3.1.2 The Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain
69(4)
3.3.1.3 Phosphorylation of ADP Linked to Electron Transport
73(3)
3.3.1.4 Coupling of Electron Transport, Oxidative Phosphorylation and Fuel Oxidation
76(1)
3.3.1.5 Uncouplers
76(1)
3.3.1.6 Respiratory Poisons
77(6)
Chapter 4 Digestion and Absorption 83(38)
4.1 The Gastrointestinal Tract
83(3)
4.2 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
86(13)
4.2.1 Classification of Carbohydrates
87(9)
4.2.1.1 Glycemic Index
88(1)
4.2.1.2 Monosaccharides
89(1)
4.2.1.3 Sugar Alcohols
90(1)
4.2.1.4 Disaccharides
91(1)
4.2.1.5 Reducing and Nonreducing Sugars
92(1)
4.2.1.6 Polysaccharides: Starches and Glycogen
93(1)
4.2.1.7 Dietary Fiber
94(2)
4.2.2 Carbohydrate Digestion and Absorption
96(3)
4.2.2.1 Starch Digestion
96(1)
4.2.2.2 Digestion of Disaccharides
97(1)
4.2.2.3 Absorption of Monosaccharides
98(1)
4.3 Digestion and Absorption of Fats
99(9)
4.3.1 Classification of Dietary Lipids
99(5)
4.3.1.1 Fatty Acids
99(3)
4.3.1.2 Phospholipids
102(1)
4.3.1.3 Cholesterol and the Steroids
103(1)
4.3.2 Digestion and Absorption of Triacylglycerols
104(4)
4.3.2.1 Bile Salts
104(2)
4.3.2.2 Lipid Absorption and Chylomicron Formation
106(2)
4.4 Digestion and Absorption of Proteins
108(6)
4.4.1 Amino Acids
109(1)
4.4.2 Protein Structure and Denaturation of Proteins
109(4)
4.4.2.1 Secondary Structure of Proteins
109(3)
4.4.2.2 Tertiary and Quaternary Structures of Proteins
112(1)
4.4.2.3 Denaturation of Proteins
112(1)
4.4.3 Protein Digestion
113(1)
4.4.3.1 Activation of Zymogens of Proteolytic Enzymes
114(1)
4.4.3.2 Absorption of the Products of Protein Digestion
114(1)
4.5 Absorption of Vitamins and Minerals
114(7)
4.5.1 Absorption of Lipid-Soluble Vitamins and Cholesterol
115(1)
4.5.2 Absorption of Water-Soluble Vitamins
115(1)
4.5.2.1 Absorption of Vitamin B12
116(1)
4.5.3 Absorption of Minerals
116(6)
4.5.3.1 Iron Absorption
117(4)
Chapter 5 Energy Nutrition: The Metabolism of Carbohydrates and Fats 121(52)
5.1 Estimation of Energy Expenditure
122(7)
5.1.1 Indirect Calorimetry and the Respiratory Quotient (RQ)
122(1)
5.1.2 Long-Term Measurement of Energy Expenditure: The Dual Isotopically Labeled Water Method
123(1)
5.1.3 Calculation of Energy Expenditure
124(6)
5.1.3.1 Basal Metabolic Rate
124(2)
5.1.3.2 Energy Costs of Physical Activity
126(1)
5.1.3.3 Diet-Induced Thermogenesis
126(3)
5.2 Energy Balance and Changes in Body Weight
129(1)
5.3 Metabolic Fuels in the Fed and Fasting States
130(4)
5.3.1 The Fed State
130(2)
5.3.2 The Fasting State
132(2)
5.4 Energy-Yielding Metabolism
134(15)
5.4.1 Glycolysis: The (Anerobic) Metabolism of Glucose
134(6)
5.4.1.1 Transfer of NADH Formed during Glycolysis into the Mitochondria
137(1)
5.4.1.2 Reduction of Pyruvate to Lactate: Anaerobic Glycolysis
138(2)
5.4.2 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway: An Alternative to Glycolysis
140(3)
5.4.2.1 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway in Red Blood Cells: Favism
140(3)
5.4.3 Metabolism of Pyruvate
143(1)
5.4.3.1 Oxidation of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
143(1)
5.4.4 Oxidation of Acetyl CoA: The Citric Acid Cycle
144(5)
5.4.4.1 The Citric Acid Cycle as Pathway for Metabolic Interconversion
146(1)
5.4.4.2 Complete Oxidation of Four- and Five-Carbon Compounds
147(2)
5.5 Metabolism of Fats
149(6)
5.5.1 Carnitine and the Transport of Fatty Acids into the Mitochondrion
150(2)
5.5.2 β-Oxidation of Fatty Acids
152(1)
5.5.3 Ketone Bodies
153(2)
5.6 Tissue Reserves of Metabolic Fuels
155(14)
5.6.1 Synthesis of Fatty Acids and Triacylglycerols
155(7)
5.6.1.1 Unsaturated Fatty Acids
159(1)
5.6.1.2 Synthesis of Triacylglycerol
160(2)
5.6.2 Plasma Lipoproteins
162(5)
5.6.2.1 Chylomicrons
162(2)
5.6.2.2 Very Low Density Lipoproteins, Intermediate-Density Lipoproteins and Low-Density Lipoproteins
164(2)
5.6.2.3 High Density Lipoproteins
166(1)
5.6.3 Glycogen
167(8)
5.6.3.1 Glycogen Utilization
168(1)
5.7 Gluconeogenesis: The Synthesis of Glucose from Noncarbohydrate Precursors
169(4)
Chapter 6 Diet and Health: Nutrition and Chronic Noncommunicable Diseases 173(50)
6.1 Chronic Noncommunicable Diseases (the "Diseases of Affluence")
174(1)
6.2 Types of Evidence Linking Diet and Chronic Diseases
175(5)
6.2.1 Secular Changes in Diet and Disease Incidence
175(1)
6.2.2 International Correlations between Diet and Disease Incidence
176(1)
6.2.3 Studies of Migrants
177(1)
6.2.4 Case-Control Studies
178(1)
6.2.5 Prospective Studies
179(1)
6.3 Guidelines for a Prudent Diet
180(16)
6.3.1 Energy Intake
184(1)
6.3.2 Fat Intake
184(4)
6.3.2.1 The Type of Fat in the Diet
184(4)
6.3.3 Carbohydrate Intake
188(4)
6.3.3.1 Sugars in the Diet
189(1)
6.3.3.2 Undigested Carbohydrates (Dietary Fiber and Non-starch Polysaccharides)
190(2)
6.3.4 The Gut Microbiome, Diet and Disease
192(1)
6.3.5 Salt
193(1)
6.3.6 Alcohol
194(2)
6.4 Nutritional Genomics: Interactions between Diet and Genes
196(4)
6.4.1 Epigenetic Programming of the Genome
197(3)
6.4.1.1 Epigenetic Mechanisms
197(2)
6.4.1.2 Nutritional Epigenetics
199(1)
6.4.1.3 In Utero and Transgenerational Epigenetic Inheritance
199(1)
6.5 Free Radicals, Oxidative Damage and Antioxidant Nutrients
200(9)
6.5.1 Tissue Damage by Oxygen Radicals
200(2)
6.5.2 Sources of Oxygen Radicals
202(2)
6.5.2.1 Reoxidation of Reduced Flavin
203(1)
6.5.2.2 The Macrophage Respiratory Burst
203(1)
6.5.2.3 Formation of Nitric Oxide
203(1)
6.5.2.4 Nonenzymic Formation of Radicals
203(1)
6.5.3 Antioxidant Nutrients and Non-Nutrients: Protection against Radical Damage
204(5)
6.5.3.1 Superoxide Dismutase, Peroxidases and Catalase
205(1)
6.5.3.2 Glutathione Peroxidase
206(1)
6.5.3.3 β-Carotene and Other Carotenes
206(1)
6.5.3.4 Vitamin C: An Antioxidant and a Prooxidant
207(1)
6.5.3.5 Intervention Trials with Vitamin E
208(1)
6.5.3.6 The Antioxidant Paradox
208(1)
6.6 Homocysteine in Cardiovascular Disease
209(5)
6.6.1 Factors Affecting Plasma Homocysteine
212(2)
6.6.1.1 Polymorphisms of Methylene Tetrahydrofolate Reductase
212(2)
6.6.1.2 Intervention Trials with Folate and Vitamins B6 and B12
214(1)
6.7 Other Potentially Protective Compounds in Foods
214(9)
6.7.1 Inhibition of Cholesterol Absorption or Synthesis
215(1)
6.7.2 Inhibition of Carcinogen Activation and Increased Conjugation of Activated Metabolites
215(4)
6.7.2.1 Allyl Sulfur Compounds
216(1)
6.7.2.2 Glucosinolates
217(1)
6.7.2.3 Flavonoids
218(1)
6.7.3 Phytoestrogens
219(1)
6.7.4 Miscellaneous Actions of Phytochemicals
220(3)
Chapter 7 Overweight and Obesity 223(24)
7.1 Desirable Body Weight
223(5)
7.1.1 Body Mass Index (BMI)
224(1)
7.1.2 Estimation of Body Fat
225(3)
7.1.2.1 Determination of Body Density
225(1)
7.1.2.2 Determination of Total Body Water or Potassium
225(2)
7.1.2.3 Imaging Techniques
227(1)
7.1.2.4 Measurement of Whole Body Electrical Conductivity and Impedance
227(1)
7.1.2.5 Measurement of Skinfold Thickness
228(1)
7.2 Problems of Overweight and Obesity
228(8)
7.2.1 Social Problems of Obesity
230(1)
7.2.2 Health Risks of Obesity
231(3)
7.2.2.1 The Distribution of Excess Adipose Tissue
232(2)
7.2.3 Obesity and the Metabolic Syndrome
234(2)
7.2.3.1 Insulin Resistance and Hyperinsulinism
234(1)
7.2.3.2 Adiponectin
235(1)
7.2.3.3 Resistin
235(1)
7.2.3.4 Chemerin
235(1)
7.2.3.5 Macrophage Infiltration of Adipose Tissue
236(1)
7.2.3.6 Excessive Synthesis of Cortisol
236(1)
7.3 Causes and Treatment of Obesity
236(11)
7.3.1 Energy Expenditure
236(1)
7.3.2 Availability of Food
237(1)
7.3.3 Control of Appetite
238(1)
7.3.4 How Obese People Can be Helped to Lose Weight
238(12)
7.3.4.1 Starvation
239(1)
7.3.4.2 Very Low Energy Diets
239(1)
7.3.4.3 Conventional Diets
239(1)
7.3.4.4 Very Low Carbohydrate (Ketogenic) Diets
240(1)
7.3.4.5 Low Glycemic Index Diets
241(1)
7.3.4.6 High-Fiber Diets
241(1)
7.3.4.7 Alternating Food Restriction and Free Consumption
242(1)
7.3.4.8 "Diets" That Probably Won't Work
242(1)
7.3.4.9 Slimming Patches
243(1)
7.3.4.10 Sugar Substitutes
243(1)
7.3.4.11 Fat Substitutes
244(1)
7.3.4.12 Pharmacological Treatment of Obesity
244(1)
7.3.4.13 Surgical Treatment of Obesity
245(1)
7.3.4.14 Help and Support
246(1)
Chapter 8 Protein-Energy Malnutrition: Problems of Undernutrition 247(12)
8.1 Problems of Deficiency
247(3)
8.2 Protein-Energy malnutrition
250(1)
8.2.1 Detection of Malnutrition in Adults
251(1)
8.3 Marasmus
251(3)
8.3.1 Causes of Marasmus and Vulnerable Groups of the Population
252(2)
8.3.1.1 Malabsorption
253(1)
8.3.1.2 Food Intolerance and Allergy
253(1)
8.4 Cachexia
254(2)
8.4.1 Hypermetabolism in Cachexia
254(1)
8.4.2 Increased Protein Catabolism in Cachexia
255(1)
8.5 Kwashiorkor
256(3)
8.5.1 Factors in the Etiology of Kwashiorkor
256(1)
8.5.2 Rehabilitation of Malnourished Children
257(2)
Chapter 9 Protein Nutrition and Metabolism 259(34)
9.1 Nitrogen Balance and Protein Requirements
259(11)
9.1.1 Dynamic Equilibrium
261(2)
9.1.1.1 Mechanisms Involved in Tissue Protein Catabolism
263(1)
9.1.2 Protein Requirements
263(4)
9.1.2.1 Protein Requirements for Physical Activity and Body Building
265(1)
9.1.2.2 Protein Requirements of Children
266(1)
9.1.2.3 Protein Losses in Trauma and Infection: Requirements for Convalescence
267(1)
9.1.3 Essential Amino Acids
267(3)
9.1.3.1 Protein Quality and Complementation
269(1)
9.1.3.2 Unavailable Amino Acids and Protein Digestibility
270(1)
9.2 Protein Synthesis
270(11)
9.2.1 The Structure and Information Content of DNA
270(5)
9.2.1.1 DNA Replication
273(1)
9.2.1.2 The Genetic Code
273(2)
9.2.2 Ribonucleic Acid
275(2)
9.2.2.1 Transcription to Form Messenger RNA.
276(1)
9.2.3 Translation of mRNA: The Process of Protein Synthesis
277(4)
9.2.3.1 Transfer RNA
277(1)
9.2.3.2 Protein Synthesis on the Ribosome
278(2)
9.2.3.3 The Energy Cost of Protein Synthesis
280(1)
9.2.3.4 Posttranslational Modification of Proteins
281(1)
9.3 Metabolism of Amino Acids
281(12)
9.3.1 Metabolism of the Amino Nitrogen
282(8)
9.3.1.1 Deamination
282(1)
9.3.1.2 Transamination
283(2)
9.3.1.3 Metabolism of Ammonia
285(1)
9.3.1.4 Synthesis of Urea
286(3)
9.3.1.5 Incorporation of Nitrogen in Biosynthesis
289(1)
9.3.2 Metabolism of Amino Acid Carbon Skeletons
290(3)
Chapter 10 The Integration and Control of Metabolism 293(30)
10.1 Patterns of Metabolic Regulation
293(2)
10.2 Intracellular Regulation of Enzyme Activity
295(5)
10.2.1 Allosteric Modification of the Activity of Regulatory Enzymes
296(1)
10.2.2 Control of Glycolysis: The Allosteric Regulation of Phosphofructokinase
297(3)
10.2.2.1 Feedback Control of Phosphofructokinase
298(1)
10.2.2.2 Feed-Forward Control of Phosphofructokinase
299(1)
10.2.2.3 Substrate Cycling
300(1)
10.3 Responses to Fast-Acting Hormones by Covalent Modification of Enzyme Proteins
300(8)
10.3.1 Membrane Receptors and G-Proteins
302(1)
10.3.2 Cyclic AMP and Cyclic GMP as Second Messengers
303(3)
10.3.2.1 Amplification of the Hormone Signal
303(3)
10.3.2.2 Desensitization of the Adrenaline Receptor
306(1)
10.3.3 Inositol Trisphosphate and Diacylglycerol as Second Messengers
306(2)
10.3.3.1 Amplification of the Hormone Signal
307(1)
10.3.4 The Insulin Receptor
308(1)
10.4 Responses to Slow-Acting Signals by Changes in Enzyme Synthesis
308(4)
10.4.1 Slow-Acting Hormones
309(2)
10.4.1.1 Amplification of the Hormone Signal
311(1)
10.4.2 Dietary Control of Enzyme Expression
311(1)
10.5 Hormonal Control in the Fed and Fasting States
312(3)
10.5.1 Hormonal Control of Adipose Tissue Metabolism
312(2)
10.5.2 Control of Lipid Metabolism in the Liver
314(1)
10.6 Selection of Fuels for Muscle Activity
315(3)
10.6.1 The Effect of Work Intensity on Muscle Fuel Selection
315(1)
10.6.2 Muscle Fuel Utilization in the Fed and Fasting States
316(2)
10.6.2.1 Regulation of Fatty Acid Metabolism in Muscle
318(1)
10.7 Diabetes Mellitus: A Failure of Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentration
318(5)
10.7.1 Adverse Effects of Poor Glycemic Control
320(3)
Chapter 11 Micronutrients: The Vitamins and Minerals 323(98)
11.1 Determination of Requirements and Reference Intakes
323(10)
11.1.1 Dietary Reference Values
324(2)
11.1.1.1 Supplements and Safe Levels of Intake
326(1)
11.1.2 The Vitamins
326(7)
11.2 Vitamin A
333(10)
11.2.1 Vitamers and International Units
333(2)
11.2.2 Metabolism and Storage of Vitamin A and Provitamin A Carotenoids
335(2)
11.2.2.1 Carotene Dioxygenase
335(1)
11.2.2.2 Plasma Retinol-Binding Protein
336(1)
11.2.3 Metabolic Functions of Vitamin A and Carotenes
337(3)
11.2.3.1 Vitamin A in Vision
337(1)
11.2.3.2 Retinoic Acid and the Regulation of Gene Expression
337(3)
11.2.3.3 The Antioxidant Function of Carotenes
340(1)
11.2.4 Vitamin A Deficiency: Night Blindness and Xerophthalmia
340(1)
11.2.5 Vitamin A Requirements and Reference Intakes
341(1)
11.2.5.1 Assessment of Vitamin A Status
341(1)
11.2.6 Toxicity of Vitamin A
341(2)
11.2.6.1 Teratogenicity of Vitamin A
342(1)
11.2.7 Interactions of Vitamin A with Drugs and Other Nutrients
343(1)
11.3 Vitamin D
343(8)
11.3.1 Vitamers and International Units
343(1)
11.3.2 Absorption and Metabolism of Vitamin D
344(3)
11.3.2.1 Synthesis of Vitamin D in the Skin
344(1)
11.3.2.2 Metabolism of Cholecalciferol
345(1)
11.3.2.3 Regulation of Vitamin D Metabolism
345(2)
11.3.3 Metabolic Functions of Vitamin D
347(1)
11.3.4 Vitamin D Deficiency: Rickets and Osteomalacia
348(1)
11.3.5 Vitamin D Requirements and Reference Intakes
349(1)
11.3.6 Vitamin D Toxicity
350(1)
11.3.7 Interactions with Drugs and Other Nutrients
351(1)
11.4 Vitamin E
351(5)
11.4.1 Vitamers and Units of Activity
351(1)
11.4.2 Absorption and Metabolism of Vitamin E
352(1)
11.4.3 Metabolic Functions of Vitamin E
353(1)
11.4.3.1 Non-antioxidant Actions of Vitamin E
354(1)
11.4.4 Vitamin E Deficiency
354(1)
11.4.5 Vitamin E Requirements
355(1)
11.4.5.1 Indices of Vitamin E Status
355(1)
11.4.5.2 Higher Levels of Intake
355(1)
11.4.6 Interactions with Other Nutrients
355(1)
11.5 Vitamin K
356(4)
11.5.1 Vitamers
356(1)
11.5.2 Dietary Sources, Bacterial Synthesis and Metabolism of Vitamin K
356(1)
11.5.3 Metabolic Functions of Vitamin K
357(2)
11.5.4 Vitamin K Deficiency and Requirements
359(1)
11.5.5 Toxicity and Drug Interactions
360(1)
11.6 Thiamin (Vitamin B1)
360(4)
11.6.1 Absorption and Metabolism of Thiamin
361(1)
11.6.2 Metabolic Functions of Thiamin
361(1)
11.6.3 Thiamin Deficiency
362(1)
11.6.3.1 Dry Beriberi
362(1)
11.6.3.2 Wet Beriberi
363(1)
11.6.3.3 Acute Pernicious (Fulminating) Beriberi: Shoshin Beriberi
363(1)
11.6.3.4 Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
363(1)
11.6.4 Thiamin Requirements
363(1)
11.6.5 Assessment of Thiamin Status
364(1)
11.7 Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)
364(4)
11.7.1 Absorption and Metabolism of Riboflavin
365(1)
11.7.1.1 Riboflavin Balance
365(1)
11.7.2 Metabolic Functions of the Flavin Coenzymes
366(1)
11.7.2.1 Flavin and Oxidative Stress
366(1)
11.7.3 Riboflavin Deficiency
366(1)
11.7.3.1 Resistance to Malaria in Riboflavin Deficiency
367(1)
11.7.4 Riboflavin Requirements
367(1)
11.7.5 Assessment of Riboflavin Nutritional Status
367(1)
11.7.6 Interactions with Drugs and Other Nutrients
368(1)
11.8 Niacin
368(7)
11.8.1 Vitamers and Niacin Equivalents
368(2)
11.8.1.1 Unavailable Niacin in Cereals
370(1)
11.8.2 Absorption and Metabolism of Niacin
370(2)
11.8.2.1 Catabolism of NAD(P)
372(1)
11.8.2.2 Urinary Excretion of Niacin and Metabolites
372(1)
11.8.3 Metabolic Functions of Niacin
372(1)
11.8.4 Pellagra: A Disease of Tryptophan and Niacin Deficiency
373(1)
11.8.4.1 Additional Factors in the Etiology of Pellagra
374(1)
11.8.5 Niacin Requirements
374(1)
11.8.6 Assessment of Niacin Status
374(1)
11.8.7 Niacin Toxicity
374(1)
11.9 Vitamin B6
375(5)
11.9.1 Vitamers
375(1)
11.9.2 Absorption and Metabolism of Vitamin B6
375(1)
11.9.3 Metabolic Functions of Vitamin B6
376(1)
11.9.4 Vitamin B6 Deficiency
377(1)
11.9.5 Vitamin B6 Requirements
377(1)
11.9.5.1 Requirements of Infants
378(1)
11.9.6 Assessment of Vitamin B6 Status
378(1)
11.9.6.1 Coenzyme Saturation of Transaminases
378(1)
11.9.6.2 The Tryptophan Load Test
379(1)
11.9.6.3 The Methionine Load Test
379(1)
11.9.7 Non-nutritional Uses of Vitamin B6
379(1)
11.9.8 Vitamin B6 Toxicity
380(1)
11.10 Vitamin B12
380(5)
11.10.1 Structure and Vitamers
380(2)
11.10.2 Absorption and Metabolism of Vitamin B12
382(1)
11.10.2.1 Enterohepatic Circulation of Vitamin B12
382(1)
11.10.3 Metabolic Functions of Vitamin B12
383(1)
11.10.4 Vitamin B12 Deficiency: Pernicious Anemia
383(1)
11.10.4.1 Drug-Induced Vitamin B12 Deficiency
383(1)
11.10.5 Vitamin B12 Requirements
384(1)
11.10.6 Assessment of Vitamin B12 Status
384(1)
11.10.6.1 The Schilling Test for Vitamin B12 Absorption
384(1)
11.10.6.2 Methylmalonic Aciduria
384(1)
11.11 Folic Acid and the Folates
385(9)
11.11.1 Vitamers and Dietary Equivalence
385(1)
11.11.2 Absorption and Metabolism of Folate
386(1)
11.11.2.1 Tissue Uptake of Folate
387(1)
11.11.2.2 Folate Excretion
387(1)
11.11.3 Metabolic Functions of Folate
387(4)
11.11.3.1 Thymidylate Synthetase and Dihydrofolate Reductase
388(1)
11.11.3.2 Methionine Synthetase and the Methyl-Folate Trap
389(1)
11.11.3.3 Methylene-Tetrahydrofolate Reductase and Hyperhomocysteinemia
390(1)
11.11.3.4 Folate in Pregnancy
390(1)
11.11.3.5 Folate and Cancer
391(1)
11.11.4 Folate Deficiency: Megaloblastic Anemia
391(1)
11.11.5 Folate Requirements
392(1)
11.11.6 Assessment of Folate Status
392(1)
11.11.6.1 Histidine Metabolism: The Formiminoglutamate (FIGLU) Test
392(1)
11.11.6.2 The dUMP Suppression Test
392(1)
11.11.7 Drug-Nutrient Interactions of Folate
393(1)
11.11.8 Folate Toxicity
393(1)
11.12 Biotin
394(2)
11.12.1 Absorption and Metabolism of Biotin
394(1)
11.12.2 Metabolic Functions of Biotin
395(1)
11.12.3 Biotin Deficiency and Requirements
395(1)
11.12.3.1 Glucose Metabolism in Biotin Deficiency
396(1)
11.12.3.2 Lipid Metabolism in Biotin Deficiency
396(1)
11.12.4 Safe and Adequate Levels of Intake
396(1)
11.13 Pantothenic Acid
396(2)
11.13.1 Absorption, Metabolism and Metabolic Functions of Pantothenic Acid
397(1)
11.13.1.1 Coenzyme A and Acyl Carrier Protein
397(1)
11.13.2 Pantothenic Acid Deficiency and Safe and Adequate Levels of Intake
397(1)
11.13.3 Nonnutritional Uses of Pantothenic Acid
398(1)
11.14 Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
398(7)
11.14.1 Absorption and Metabolism of Vitamin C
399(1)
11.14.2 Metabolic Functions of Vitamin C
400(1)
11.14.2.1 Copper-Containing Hydroxylases
400(1)
11.14.2.2 Oxoglutarate-Linked Iron-Containing Hydroxylases
400(1)
11.14.2.3 Prooxidant and Antioxidant Roles of Ascorbate
401(1)
11.14.3 Vitamin C Deficiency: Scurvy
401(1)
11.14.3.1 Anemia in Scurvy
402(1)
11.14.4 Vitamin C Requirements
402(1)
11.14.5 Assessment of Vitamin C Status
403(1)
11.14.6 Possible Benefits of High Intakes of Vitamin C
404(1)
11.14.6.1 Iron Absorption
404(1)
11.14.6.2 Inhibition of Nitrosamine Formation
404(1)
11.14.6.3 Pharmacological Uses of Vitamin C
405(1)
11.14.7 Toxicity of Vitamin C
405(1)
11.15 Marginal Compounds
405(2)
11.15.1 Carnitine
405(1)
11.15.2 Choline
406(1)
11.15.3 Inositol
406(1)
11.15.4 Taurine
407(1)
11.15.5 Ubiquinone (Coenzyme Q, "Vitamin Q")
407(1)
11.16 Minerals
407(14)
11.16.1 Calcium
408(4)
11.16.1.1 Calcium Homeostasis
409(2)
11.16.1.2 Osteoporosis
411(1)
11.16.2 Minerals That Function as Prosthetic Groups in Enzymes
412(3)
11.16.2.1 Cobalt
412(1)
11.16.2.2 Copper
412(1)
11.16.2.3 Iron
412(1)
11.16.2.4 Molybdenum
413(1)
11.16.2.5 Selenium
413(1)
11.16.2.6 Zinc
414(1)
11.16.3 Minerals That Have a Regulatory Role (in Neurotransmission, as Enzyme Activators or in Hormones)
415(2)
11.16.3.1 Calcium
415(1)
11.16.3.2 Chromium
415(1)
11.16.3.3 Iodine
415(1)
11.16.3.4 Magnesium
416(1)
11.16.3.5 Manganese
416(1)
11.16.3.6 Sodium and Potassium
417(1)
11.16.4 Minerals Known to Be Essential, but Whose Function Is not Known
417(1)
11.16.4.1 Silicon
417(1)
11.16.4.2 Vanadium
417(1)
11.16.4.3 Nickel and Tin
417(1)
11.16.5 Minerals That Have Effects in the Body, but Whose Essentiality Is Not Established
417(1)
11.16.5.1 Fluoride
417(1)
11.16.5.2 Lithium
418(1)
11.16.5.3 Other Minerals
418(1)
11.17 Nutritional Anemias
418(3)
Index 421
David A. Bender was educated at North Ealing Primary School and Greenford County

Grammar School in London and then studied biochemistry at the University of Birmingham

in England from 1965 to 1968. He joined the Courtauld Institute of Biochemistry at the

Middlesex Hospital Medical School as a research assistant in 1968, was appointed as a

lecturer in biochemistry in 1970 and received his PhD (on the metabolism of aromatic

amino acids) from the University of London in 1971. The Middlesex Hospital Medical

School merged with University College London (UCL) in 1987, and he became a member

of the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at UCL. He was appointed as

senior lecturer in biochemistry in 1994 and professor of nutritional biochemistry in 2009.

He retired from UCL in 2011, with the title of Emeritus Professor. From 1994 until retirement,

he was the assistant faculty tutor to the medical students, and from 1998 he was

the subdean (Education) and director of studies for the early years of the medical course

at UCL.

His research interests have been in the fi eld of amino acid and vitamin nutritional

biochemistry, and he was a member of the working group on vitamins that formed part of

the expert committee that produced the 1991 report on Dietary Reference Values for Food

Energy and Nutrients for the United Kingdom, the European Union expert committee that

produced the 1993 report on Nutrient and Energy Intakes for the European Community

and the Food Safety Authority of Ireland working party on Safe Micronutrient Levels.

In addition to research publications, he has also written a number of books, including:

Nutritional Biochemistry of the Vitamins , 2nd Edition, 2003, Cambridge University Press.

Amino Acid Metabolism , 3rd Edition, 2012, Wiley- Blackwell.

Benders Dictionary of Nutrition and Food Technology , 8th Edition, 2006, Woodhead

Publishing, Oxford.

Dictionary of Food and Nutrition , 3rd Edition, 2009, Oxford University Press.

For more information about David A. Bender, visit http:// david- bender.co.uk.

Shauna M. C. Cunningham was educated at Bank Street Primary School and Greenwood

Academy in Irvine, Scotland, before undertaking undergraduate studies at Glasgow

University. She moved to Aberdeen University in 1991 to study for a PhD. This was

followed by a period of postdoctoral research at Aberdeen University and Kurume

University Medical School, Japan, before she joined the Nutrition and Dietetics Teaching

Group in 2001 as a lecturer in nutritional physiology and biochemistry at Robert Gordon

University in Aberdeen. Shauna continues to teach student nutritionists and dietitians at

Robert Gordon University, with a particular interest in metabolism and its relationship

with diet.
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