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E-grāmata: Introduction to Surfactants

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  • Formāts: 235 pages
  • Sērija : De Gruyter Textbook
  • Izdošanas datums: 01-Apr-2014
  • Izdevniecība: De Gruyter
  • Valoda: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9783110370591
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Writing for graduate students and practicing formulators in any of the many fields where surfactants are used, Tadros explains the basic physical phenomena involved without delving into much detail. He begins with a general classification of surfactants, and then looks at aggregations, self-assembly structures, and liquid crystalline phases. Following chapters survey surfactants at interfaces, as emulsifiers, as dispersants and stabilizers of suspensions, for stabilizing foam, in nanoemulsions and microemulsions, as wetting agents, and in industrial applications. Annotation ©2014 Ringgold, Inc., Portland, OR (protoview.com)

Surfactants are surface active agents, molecules that have a significant role in emulsions, suspensions, and foams. They find widespread application in personal care, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals and the food industry.Their classification, physical properties, phase behavior, their effects and applications are covered in this book.

Preface v
1 General introduction
1(4)
2 General classification of surfactants
5(24)
2.1 Anionic surfactants
5(4)
2.1.1 Carboxylates
6(1)
2.1.2 Sulfates
6(1)
2.1.3 Sulfonates
7(1)
2.1.4 Isethionates
8(1)
2.1.5 Taurates
9(1)
2.1.6 Phosphate-containing anionic surfactants
9(1)
2.2 Cationic surfactants
9(2)
2.3 Amphoteric (zwitterionic) surfactants
11(1)
2.4 Nonionic surfactants
12(4)
2.4.1 Alcohol ethoxylates
12(1)
2.4.2 Alkyl phenol ethoxylates
13(1)
2.4.3 Fatty acid ethoxylates
13(1)
2.4.4 Sorbitan esters and their ethoxylated derivatives (Spans and Tweens)
13(2)
2.4.5 Ethoxylated fats and oils
15(1)
2.4.6 Amine ethoxylates
15(1)
2.4.7 Amine oxides
15(1)
2.5 Speciality surfactants
16(13)
2.5.1 Fluorocarbon and silicone surfactants
16(1)
2.5.2 Gemini surfactants
17(1)
2.5.3 Surfactants derived from mono-and polysaccharides
17(1)
2.5.4 Naturally occurring surfactants
18(4)
2.5.5 Biosurfactants
22(2)
2.5.6 Polymeric surfactants
24(5)
3 Aggregation of surfactants, self-assembly structures, liquid crystalline phases
29(22)
3.1 Thermodynamics of micellization
36(3)
3.1.1 Kinetic aspects
36(1)
3.1.2 Equilibrium aspects: Thermodynamics of micellization
37(2)
3.2 Enthalpy and entropy of micellization
39(1)
3.3 Driving force for micelle formation
40(2)
3.4 Micellization in surfactant mixtures (mixed micelles)
42(3)
3.5 Surfactant self-assembly
45(3)
3.5.1 Structure of liquid crystalline phases
45(1)
3.5.2 Hexagonal phase
46(1)
3.5.3 Micellar cubic phase
47(1)
3.5.4 Lamellar phase
47(1)
3.5.5 Bicontinuous cubic phases
47(1)
3.5.6 Reversed structures
47(1)
3.6 Experimental studies of the phase behavior of surfactants
48(3)
4 Surfactant adsorption at interfaces
51(22)
4.1 Introduction
51(1)
4.2 Adsorption of surfactants at the air/liquid (A/L) and liquid/liquid (L/L) interfaces
52(7)
4.2.1 The Gibbs adsorption isotherm
53(4)
4.2.2 Equation of state approach
57(1)
4.2.3 The Langmuir, Szyszkowski and Frumkin equations
58(1)
4.3 Interfacial tension measurements
59(3)
4.3.1 The Wilhelmy plate method
59(1)
4.3.2 The pendent drop method
60(1)
4.3.3 The Du Nouy's ring method
61(1)
4.3.4 The drop volume (weight) method
61(1)
4.3.5 The spinning drop method
61(1)
4.4 Adsorption of surfactants at the solid/liquid interface
62(11)
4.4.1 Adsorption of ionic surfactants on hydrophobic surfaces
64(3)
4.4.2 Adsorption of ionic surfactants on polar surfaces
67(2)
4.4.3 Adsorption of nonionic surfactants
69(4)
5 Surfactants as emulsifiers
73(30)
5.1 Introduction
73(4)
5.1.1 Nature of the emulsifier
73(1)
5.1.2 Structure of the system
74(1)
5.1.3 Breakdown processes in emulsions
74(3)
5.2 Physical chemistry of emulsion systems
77(8)
5.2.1 The interface (Gibbs dividing line)
77(1)
5.2.2 Thermodynamics of emulsion formation and breakdown
78(2)
5.2.3 Interaction energies (forces) between emulsion droplets and their combinations
80(5)
5.3 Mechanism of emulsifkation
85(7)
5.3.1 Methods of emulsifkation
86(2)
5.3.2 Role of surfactants in emulsion formation
88(1)
5.3.3 Role of surfactants in droplet deformation
89(3)
5.4 Selection of emulsifiers
92(5)
5.4.1 The Hydrophilic-Lipophile Balance (HLB) concept
92(3)
5.4.2 The Phase Inversion Temperature (PIT) concept
95(2)
5.5 Stabilization of emulsions
97(6)
5.5.1 Creaming or sedimentation and its prevention
97(1)
5.5.2 Flocculation of emulsions and its prevention
98(1)
5.5.3 Ostwatd ripening and its reduction
99(1)
5.5.4 Emulsion coalescence and its prevention
100(3)
6 Surfactants as dispersants and stabilization of suspensions
103(18)
6.1 Introduction
103(1)
6.2 Role of surfactants in preparation of solid/liquid dispersions (suspensions)
103(12)
6.2.1 Role of surfactants in condensation methods. Nucleation and growth
104(1)
6.2.2 Emulsion polymerization
105(2)
6.2.3 Dispersion polymerization
107(2)
6.2.4 Role of surfactants in dispersion methods
109(6)
6.3 Assessment of wettability of powders
115(6)
6.3.1 Sinking time, submersion or immersion test
115(1)
6.3.2 Measurement of contact angles of liquids and surfactant solutions on powders
116(1)
6.3.3 List of wetting agents for hydrophobic solids in water
116(2)
6.3.4 Stabilization of suspensions using surfactants
118(3)
7 Surfactants for foam stabilization
121(14)
7.1 Introduction
121(1)
7.2 Foam preparation
121(1)
7.3 Foam structure
122(1)
7.4 Classification of foam stability
123(6)
7.4.1 Drainage and thinning of foam films
124(1)
7.4.2 Theories of foam stability
125(4)
7.5 Foam inhibitors
129(3)
7.5.1 Chemical inhibitors that lower viscosity and increase drainage
130(1)
7.5.2 Solubilized chemicals which cause antifoaming
130(1)
7.5.3 Droplets and oil lenses which cause antifoaming and defoaming
130(1)
7.5.4 Surface tension gradients (induced by antifoamers)
131(1)
7.5.5 Hydrophobic particles as antifoamers
131(1)
7.5.6 Mixtures of hydrophobic particles and oils as antifoamers
132(1)
7.6 Assessment of foam formation and stability
132(3)
7.6.1 Efficiency and effectiveness of a foaming surfactant
133(2)
8 Surfactants in nanoemulsions
135(18)
8.1 Introduction
135(2)
8.2 Fundamental principles of emulsification
137(2)
8.2.1 Methods of emulsification and the role of surfactants
138(1)
8.3 Preparation of nanoemulsions
139(2)
8.3.1 Use of high pressure homogenizers
139(1)
8.3.2 Phase inversion principle methods (low energy emulsification)
140(1)
8.4 Steric stabilization and the role of the adsorbed layer thickness
141(3)
8.5 Ostwald Ripening
144(1)
8.6 Examples of nanoemulsions
145(8)
9 Surfactants in microemulsions
153(16)
9.1 Introduction
153(1)
9.2 Thermodynamic definition of microemulsions
154(1)
9.3 Description of microemulsions using phase diagrams
155(2)
9.4 Thermodynamic theory of microemulsion formation
157(2)
9.5 Characterization of microemulsions using scattering techniques
159(4)
9.5.1 Time average (static) light scattering
159(3)
9.5.2 Dynamic light scattering (photon correlation spectroscopy, PCS)
162(1)
9.6 Characterization of microemulsions using conductivity
163(2)
9.7 NMR measurements
165(1)
9.8 Formulation of microemulsions
165(4)
10 Surfactants as wetting agents
169(10)
10.1 Introduction
169(1)
10.2 The concept of contact angle
170(2)
10.3 Adhesion tension
172(1)
10.4 Work of adhesion Wa
172(1)
10.5 Work of cohesion
172(1)
10.6 The spreading coefficient S
173(1)
10.7 Contact angle hysteresis
173(1)
10.8 Critical surface tension of wetting
174(1)
10.9 Effect of surfactant adsorption
175(1)
10.10 Measurement of contact angles
176(3)
11 Industrial applications of surfactants
179(42)
11.1 Surfactants in the home, personal care and cosmetics
179(17)
11.1.1 Shaving formulations
184(1)
11.1.2 Barsoaps
185(1)
11.1.3 Liquid hand soaps
185(1)
11.1.4 Bath oils
186(1)
11.1.5 Foam (or bubble) baths
186(1)
11.1.6 After bath preparations
186(1)
11.1.7 Skin care products
186(2)
11.1.8 Hair care formulations
188(3)
11.1.9 Sunscreens
191(2)
11.1.10 Make-up products
193(3)
11.2 Surfactants in pharmacy
196(6)
11.2.1 Surface active drugs
197(1)
11.2.2 Naturally occurring micelle-forming systems
198(2)
11.2.3 Biological implications of the presence of surfactants in pharmaceutical formulations
200(1)
11.2.4 Solubilized systems
201(1)
11.2.5 Pharmaceutical aspects of solubilization
202(1)
11.3 Surfactants in agrochemicals
202(10)
11.4 Surfactants in paints and coatings
212(5)
11.5 Surfactants in detergents
217(4)
Index 221
Tharwat F. Tadros, Wokingham, UK.
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