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PART I The Molecular Design of Life |
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SECTION 1 Biochemistry Helps Us to Understand Our World |
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1 | (34) |
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Chapter 1 Biochemistry and the Unity of Life |
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3 | (14) |
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1.1 Living Systems Require a Limited Variety of Atoms and Molecules |
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4 | (1) |
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1.2 There Are Four Major Classes of Biomolecules |
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5 | (2) |
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Proteins Are Highly Versatile Biomolecules |
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5 | (1) |
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Nucleic Acids Are the Information Molecules of the Cell |
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6 | (1) |
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Lipids Are a Storage Form of Fuel and Serve as a Barrier |
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6 | (1) |
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Carbohydrates Are Fuels and Informational Molecules |
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7 | (1) |
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1.3 The Central Dogma Describes the Basic Principles of Biological Information Transfer |
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7 | (1) |
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1.4 Membranes Define the Cell and Carry Out Cellular Functions |
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8 | (9) |
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Biochemical Functions Are Sequestered in Cellular Compartments |
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11 | (1) |
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Some Organelles Process and Sort Proteins and Exchange Material with the Environment |
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12 | (2) |
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Clinical Insight Defects in Organelle Function May Lead to Disease |
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14 | (3) |
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Chapter 2 Water, Weak Bonds, and the Generation of Order Out of Chaos |
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17 | (18) |
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2.1 Thermal Motions Power Biological Interactions |
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18 | (1) |
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2.2 Biochemical Interactions Take Place in an Aqueous Solution |
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18 | (2) |
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2.3 Weak Interactions Are Important Biochemical Properties |
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20 | (2) |
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Electrostatic Interactions Are Between Electrical Charges |
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20 | (1) |
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Hydrogen Bonds Form Between an Electronegative Atom and Hydrogen |
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21 | (1) |
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van der Waals Interactions Depend on Transient Asymmetry in Electrical Charge |
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21 | (1) |
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Weak Bonds Permit Repeated Interactions |
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22 | (1) |
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2.4 Hydrophobic Molecules Cluster Together |
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22 | (4) |
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Membrane Formation Is Powered by the Hydrophobic Effect |
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23 | (1) |
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Protein Folding Is Powered by the Hydrophobic Effect |
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24 | (1) |
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Functional Croups Have Specific Chemical Properties |
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24 | (2) |
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2.5 Pills an Important Parameter of Biochemical Systems |
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26 | (9) |
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Water Ionizes to a Small Extent |
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26 | (1) |
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An Acid Is a Proton Donor, Whereas a Base Is a Proton Acceptor |
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27 | (1) |
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Acids Have Differing Tendencies to Ionize |
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27 | (1) |
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Buffers Resist Changes in pH |
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28 | (1) |
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Buffers Are Crucial in Biological Systems |
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29 | (1) |
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Making Buffers Is a Common Laboratory Practice |
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30 | (5) |
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SECTION 2 Sequential Mutation of a Number of Protein Composition and Structure |
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35 | (60) |
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37 | (10) |
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Two Different Ways of Depicting Biomolecules Will Be Used |
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38 | (1) |
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3.1 Proteins Are Built from a Repertoire of 20 Amino Acids |
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38 | (1) |
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Most Amino Acids Exist in Two Mirror-Image Forms |
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38 | (1) |
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All Amino Acids Have at Least Two Charged Croups |
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38 | (1) |
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3.2 Amino Acids Contain a Wide Array of Functional Groups |
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39 | (5) |
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Hydrophobic Amino Acids Have Mainly Hydrocarbon Side Chains |
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39 | (2) |
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Polar Amino Acids Have Side Chains That Contain an Electronegative Atom |
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41 | (1) |
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Positively Charged Amino Acids Are Hydrophilic |
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42 | (1) |
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Negatively Charged Amino Acids Have Acidic Side Chains |
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43 | (1) |
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The Ionizable Side Chains Enhance Reactivity and Bonding |
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43 | (1) |
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3.3 Essential Amino Acids Must Be Obtained from the Diet |
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44 | (3) |
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Clinical Insight Pathological Conditions Result If Protein Intake Is Inadequate |
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44 | (3) |
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Chapter 4 Protein Three-Dimensional Structure |
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47 | (22) |
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4.1 Primary Structure: Amino Acids Are Linked by Peptide Bonds to Form Polypeptide Chains |
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48 | (4) |
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Proteins Have Unique Amino Acid Sequences Specified by Genes |
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49 | (1) |
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Polypeptide Chains Are Flexible Yet Conformationally Restricted |
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50 | (2) |
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4.2 Secondary Structure: Polypeptide Chains Can Fold into Regular Structures |
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52 | (5) |
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The Alpha Helix Is a Coiled Structure Stabilized by Intrachain Hydrogen Bonds |
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52 | (1) |
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Beta Sheets Are Stabilized by Hydrogen Bonding Between Polypeptide Strands |
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53 | (2) |
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Polypeptide Chains Can Change Direction by Making Reverse Turns and Loops |
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55 | (1) |
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Fibrous Proteins Provide Structural Support for Cells and Tissues |
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55 | (2) |
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Clinical Insight Defects in Collagen Structure Result in Pathological Conditions |
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57 | (1) |
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4.3 Tertiary Structure: Water-Soluble Proteins Fold into Compact Structures |
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57 | (2) |
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Myoglobin Illustrates the Principles of Tertiary Structure |
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57 | (2) |
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The Tertiary Structure of Many Proteins Can Be Divided into Structural and Functional Units |
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59 | (1) |
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4.4 Quaternary Structure: Multiple Polypeptide Chains Can Assemble into a Single Protein |
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59 | (1) |
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4.5 The Amino Acid Sequence of a Protein Determines Its Three-Dimensional Structure |
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60 | (9) |
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Proteins Fold by the Progressive Stabilization of f Intermediates Rather Than by Random Search |
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61 | (1) |
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Some Proteins Are Inherently Unstructured and Can Exist in Multiple Conformations |
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62 | (1) |
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Clinical Insight Protein Misfolding and Aggregation Are Associated with Some Neurological Diseases |
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63 | (6) |
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Chapter 5 Techniques in Protein Biochemistry |
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69 | (26) |
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5.1 The Proteome Is the Functional Representation of the Genome |
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70 | (1) |
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5.2 The Purification of a Protein Is the First Step in Understanding Its Function |
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70 | (8) |
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Proteins Can Be Purified on the Basis of Differences in Their Chemical Properties |
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71 | (1) |
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Proteins Must Be Removed from the Cell to Be Purified |
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71 | (1) |
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Proteins Can Be Purified According to Solubility, Size, Charge, and Binding Affinity |
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72 | (2) |
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Proteins Can Be Separated by Gel Electrophoresis and Displayed |
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74 | (3) |
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A Purification Scheme Can Be Quantitatively Evaluated |
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77 | (1) |
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5.3 Immunological Techniques Are Used to Purify and Characterize Proteins |
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78 | (8) |
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Centrifugation Is a Means of Separating Proteins |
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78 | (1) |
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Gradient Centrifugation Provides an Assay for the Estradiol--Receptor Complex |
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79 | (1) |
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Antibodies to Specific Proteins Can Be Generated |
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80 | (1) |
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Monoclonal Antibodies with Virtually Any Desired f Specificity Can Be Readily Prepared |
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81 | (2) |
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The Estrogen Receptor Can Be Purified by Immunoprecipitation |
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83 | (1) |
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Proteins Can Be Detected and Quantified with the Use of an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay |
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84 | (1) |
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Western Blotting Permits the Detection of Proteins Separated by Gel Electrophoresis |
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84 | (2) |
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5.4 Determination of Primary Structure Facilitates an Understanding of Protein Function |
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86 | (9) |
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Mass Spectrometry Can Be Used to Determine a Protein's Mass, Identity, and Sequence |
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88 | (2) |
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Amino Acids Are Sources of Many Kinds of Insight |
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90 | (5) |
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SECTION 3 Basic Concepts and Kinetics of Enzymes |
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95 | (70) |
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Chapter 6 Basic Concepts of Enzyme Action |
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97 | (14) |
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6.1 Enzymes Are Powerful and Highly Specific Catalysts |
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97 | (2) |
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Proteolytic Enzymes Illustrate the Range of Enzyme Specificity |
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98 | (1) |
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There Are Six Major Classes of Enzymes |
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98 | (1) |
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6.2 Many Enzymes Require Cofactors for Activity |
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99 | (1) |
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6.3 Gibbs Free Energy Is a Useful Thermodynamic Function for Understanding Enzymes |
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100 | (3) |
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The Free-Energy Change Provides Information About the Spontaneity but Not the Rate of a Reaction |
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100 | (1) |
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The Standard Free-Energy Change of a Reaction Is Related to the Equilibrium Constant |
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101 | (1) |
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Enzymes Alter the Reaction Rate but Not the Reaction Equilibrium |
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102 | (1) |
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6.4 Enzymes Facilitate the Formation of the Transition State |
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103 | (8) |
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The Formation of an Enzyme-Substrate Complex Is the First Step in Enzymatic Catalysis |
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103 | (1) |
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The Active Sites of Enzymes Have Some Common Features |
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104 | (1) |
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The Binding Energy Between Enzyme and Substrate Is Important for Catalysis |
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105 | (1) |
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Transition-State Analogs Are Potent Inhibitors of Enzyme |
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106 | (5) |
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Chapter 7 Kinetics and Regulation |
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111 | (20) |
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7.1 Kinetics Is the Study of Reaction Rates |
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112 | (1) |
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7.2 The Michaelis--Menten Model Describes the Kinetics of Many Enzymes |
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113 | (5) |
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Clinical Insight Variations in KM Can Have Physiological Consequences |
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114 | (1) |
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KM and Vmax Values Can Be Determined by Several Means |
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115 | (1) |
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KM and Vmax Values Are Important Enzyme Characteristics |
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115 | (1) |
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KCAT/KM Is a Measure of Catalytic Efficiency |
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116 | (1) |
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Most Biochemical Reactions Include Multiple Substrates |
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117 | (1) |
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7.3 Allosteric Enzymes Are Catalysts and Information Sensors |
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118 | (5) |
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Allosteric Enzymes Are Regulated by Products of the Pathways Under Their Control |
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120 | (1) |
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Allosterically Regulated Enzymes Do Not Conform to Michaelis--Menten Kinetics |
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121 | (1) |
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Allosteric Enzymes Depend on Alterations in Quaternary Structure |
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121 | (1) |
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Regulator Molecules Modulate the R ↔ T Equilibrium |
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122 | (1) |
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The Sequential Model Also Can Account for Allosteric Effects |
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123 | (1) |
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Clinical Insight Loss of Allosteric Control May Result in Pathological Conditions |
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123 | (1) |
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7.4 Enzymes Can Be Studied One Molecule at a Time |
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123 | (8) |
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Chapter 8 Mechanisms and Inhibitors |
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131 | (18) |
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8.1 A Few Basic Catalytic Strategies Are Used by Many Enzymes |
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131 | (1) |
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8.2 Enzyme Activity Can Be Modulated by Temperature, pH, and Inhibitory Molecules |
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132 | (8) |
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Temperature Enhances the Rate of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions |
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132 | (1) |
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Most Enzymes Have an Optimal pH |
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133 | (1) |
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Enzymes Can Be Inhibited by Specific Molecules |
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134 | (1) |
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Reversible Inhibitors Are Kinetically Distinguishable |
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135 | (2) |
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Irreversible Inhibitors Can Be Used to Map the Active Site |
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137 | (1) |
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Clinical Insight Penicillin Irreversibly Inactivates a Key Enzyme in Bacterial Cell--Wall Synthesis |
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138 | (2) |
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8.3 Chymotrypsin Illustrates Basic Principles of Catalysis and Inhibition |
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140 | (9) |
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Serine 195 Is Required for Chymotrypsin Activity |
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140 | (1) |
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Chymotrypsin Action Proceeds in Two Steps Linked by a Covalently Bound Intermediate |
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141 | (1) |
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The Catalytic Role of Histidine 57 Was Demonstrated by Affinity Labeling |
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142 | (1) |
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Serine Is Part of a Catalytic Triad That Includes Histidine and Aspartic Acid |
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142 | (7) |
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Chapter 9 Hemoglobin, an Allosteric Protein |
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149 | (16) |
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9.1 Hemoglobin Displays Cooperative Behavior |
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150 | (1) |
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9.2 Myoglobin and Hemoglobin Bind Oxygen in Heme Groups |
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150 | (2) |
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Clinical Insight Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Reveals Regions of the Brain Processing Sensory Information |
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152 | (1) |
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9.3 Hemoglobin Binds Oxygen Cooperatively |
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152 | (2) |
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9.4 An Allosteric Regulator Determines the Oxygen Affinity of Hemoglobin |
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154 | (1) |
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Clinical Insight Hemoglobin's Oxygen Affinity Is Adjusted to Meet Environmental Needs |
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154 | (1) |
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Biological Insight Hemoglobin Adaptations Allow Oxygen Transport in Extreme Environments |
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155 | (1) |
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9.5 Hydrogen Ions and Carbon Dioxide Promote the Release of Oxygen |
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155 | (1) |
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9.6 Mutations in Genes Encoding Hemoglobin Subunits Can Result in Disease |
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156 | (9) |
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Clinical Insight Sickle-Cell Anemia Is a Disease Caused by a Mutation in Hemoglobin |
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157 | (2) |
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NEW Clinical Insight Thalassemia is Caused by an Imbalanced Production of Hemoglobin Chains |
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159 | (6) |
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SECTION 4 Carbohydrates and Lipids |
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165 | (38) |
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167 | (22) |
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10.1 Monosaccharides Are the Simplest Carbohydrates |
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168 | (5) |
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Many Common Sugars Exist in Cyclic Forms |
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169 | (2) |
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NEW Pyranose and Furanose Rings Can Assume Different Conformations |
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171 | (1) |
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NEW Clinical Insight Glucose Is a Reducing Sugar |
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171 | (1) |
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Monosaccharides Are Joined to Alcohols and Amines Through Glycosidic Bonds |
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172 | (1) |
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Biological Insight Glucosinolates Protect Plants and Add Flavor to Our Diets |
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173 | (1) |
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10.2 Monosaccharides Are Linked to Form Complex Carbohydrates |
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173 | (4) |
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Specific Enzymes Are Responsible for Oligosaccharide Assembly |
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173 | (1) |
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Sucrose, Lactose, and Maltose Are the Common Disaccharides |
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174 | (1) |
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Glycogen and Starch Are Storage Forms of Glucose |
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175 | (1) |
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Cellulose, a Structural Component of Plants, Is Made of Chains of Glucose |
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175 | (2) |
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10.3 Carbohydrates Are Attached to Proteins to Form Glycoproteins |
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177 | (5) |
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Carbohydrates May Be Linked to Asparagine, Serine, or Threonine Residues of Proteins |
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177 | (1) |
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Clinical Insight The Hormone Erythropoietin Is a Glycoprotein |
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178 | (1) |
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Proteoglycans, Composed of Polysaccharides and Protein, Have Important Structural Roles |
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178 | (1) |
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Clinical Insight Proteoglycans Are Important Components of Cartilage |
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179 | (1) |
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Clinical Insight Mucins Are Glycoprotein Components of Mucus |
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180 | (1) |
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Biological Insight Blood Groups Are Based on Protein Glycosylation Patterns |
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181 | (1) |
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Clinical Insight Lack of Glycosylation Can Result in Pathological Conditions |
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182 | (1) |
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10.4 Lectins Are Specific Carbohydrate--Binding Proteins |
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182 | (7) |
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Lectins Promote Interactions Between Cells |
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183 | (1) |
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Clinical Insight Lectins Facilitate Embryonic Development |
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183 | (1) |
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Clinical Insight Influenza Virus Binds to Sialic Acid Residues |
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183 | (6) |
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189 | (14) |
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11.1 Fatty Acids Are a Main Source of Fuel |
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190 | (3) |
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Fatty Acids Vary in Chain Length and Degree of Unsaturation |
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191 | (1) |
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The Degree and Type of Unsaturation Are Important to Health |
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192 | (1) |
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11.2 Triacylglycerols Are the Storage Form of Fatty Acids |
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193 | (1) |
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11.3 There Are Three Common Types of Membrane Lipids |
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194 | (9) |
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Phospholipids Are the Major Class of Membrane Lipids |
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194 | (2) |
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Membrane Lipids Can Include Carbohydrates |
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196 | (1) |
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Steroids Are Lipids That Have a Variety of Roles |
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196 | (1) |
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Biological Insight Membranes of Extremophiles Are Built from Ether Lipids with Branched Chains |
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197 | (1) |
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Membrane Lipids Contain a Hydrophilic and a Hydrophobic Moiety |
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197 | (1) |
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Some Proteins Are Modified by the Covalent Attachment of Hydrophobic Groups |
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198 | (1) |
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Clinical Insight Premature Aging Can Result from the Improper Attachment of a Hydrophobic Group to a Protein |
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199 | (4) |
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SECTION 5 Cell Membranes, Channels, Pumps, and Receptors |
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203 | (42) |
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Chapter 12 Membrane Structure and Function |
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205 | (20) |
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12.1 Phospholipids and Glycolipids Form Bimolecular Sheets |
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206 | (2) |
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Clinical Insight Lipid Vesicles Can Be Formed from Phospholipids |
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207 | (1) |
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Lipid Bilayers Are Highly Impermeable to Ions and Most Polar Molecules |
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207 | (1) |
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12.2 Membrane Fluidity Is Controlled by Fatty Acid Composition and Cholesterol Content |
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208 | (1) |
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12.3 Proteins Carry Out Most Membrane Processes |
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209 | (2) |
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Proteins Associate with the Lipid Bilayer in a Variety of Ways |
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209 | (2) |
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Clinical Insight The Association of Prostaglandin H2, Synthase-I with the Membrane Accounts for the Action of Aspirin |
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211 | (1) |
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12.4 Lipids and Many Membrane Proteins Diffuse Laterally in the Membrane |
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211 | (1) |
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12.5 A Major Role of Membrane Proteins Is to Function As Transporters |
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212 | (13) |
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The Na+-K+ ATPase Is an Important Pump in Many Cells |
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213 | (1) |
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Clinical Insight Multidrug Resistance Highlights a Family of Membrane Pumps with ATP-Binding Domains |
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214 | (1) |
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Clinical Insight Harlequin Ichthyosis Is a Dramatic Result of a Mutation in an ABC Transporter Protein |
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214 | (1) |
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Secondary Transporters Use One Concentration Gradient to Power the Formation of Another |
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214 | (1) |
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Clinical Insight Digitalis Inhibits the Na+-K+ Pump by Blocking its Dephosphorylation |
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215 | (1) |
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Specific Channels Can Rapidly Transport Ions Across Membranes |
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216 | (1) |
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Biological Insight Venomous Pit Vipers Use Ion Channels to Generate a Thermal Image |
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216 | (1) |
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The Structure of the Potassium Ion Channel Reveals the Basis of Ion Specificity |
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216 | (2) |
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The Structure of the Potassium Ion Channel Explains Its Rapid Rate of Transport |
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218 | (7) |
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Chapter 13 Signal-Transduction Pathways |
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225 | (20) |
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13.1 Signal Transduction Depends on Molecular Circuits |
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225 | (2) |
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13.2 Receptor Proteins Transmit Information into I the Cell |
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227 | (6) |
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Seven-Transmembrane-Helix Receptors Change Conformation in Response to Ligand Binding and Activate G Proteins |
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227 | (1) |
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Ligand Binding to 7TM Receptors Leads to the Activation of G Proteins |
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228 | (1) |
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Activated G Proteins Transmit Signals by Binding to Other Proteins |
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229 | (1) |
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Cyclic AMP Stimulates the Phosphorylation of Many Target Proteins by Activating Protein Kinase A |
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229 | (1) |
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NEW Clinical Insight Mutations in Protein Kinase A Can Cause Cushing's Syndrome |
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230 | (1) |
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G Proteins Spontaneously Reset Themselves Through GTP Hydrolysis |
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230 | (1) |
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Clinical Insight Cholera and Whooping Cough Are Due to Altered G-Protein Activity |
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231 | (1) |
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The Hydrolysis of Phosphatidylinositol Bisphosphate by Phospholipase C Generates Two Second Messengers |
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232 | (1) |
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13.3 Some Receptors Dimerize in Response to Ligand Binding and Recruit Tyrosine Kinases |
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233 | (3) |
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Receptor Dimerization May Result in Tyrosine Kinase Recruitment |
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233 | (2) |
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Clinical Insight Some Receptors Contain Tyrosine Kinase Domains Within Their Covalent Structures |
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235 | (1) |
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Ras Belongs to Another Class of Signaling G Proteins |
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236 | (1) |
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13.4 Metabolism in Context: Insulin Signaling Regulates Metabolism |
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236 | (2) |
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The Insulin Receptor Is a Dimer That Closes Around a Bound Insulin Molecule |
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236 | (1) |
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The Activated Insulin-Receptor Kinase Initiates a Kinase Cascade |
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237 | (1) |
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Insulin Signaling Is Terminated by the Action of Phosphatases |
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238 | (1) |
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13.5 Calcium Ion Is a Ubiquitous Cytoplasmic Messenger |
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238 | (7) |
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1.3.6 Defects in Signaling Pathways Can Lead to Diseases |
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239 | (1) |
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Clinical Insight The Conversion of Proto-oncogenes into Oncogenes Disrupts the Regulation of Cell Growth |
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239 | (1) |
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Clinical Insight Protein Kinase Inhibitors May Be Effective Anticancer Drugs |
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240 | (5) |
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PART II Transducing and Storing Energy |
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SECTION 6 Basic Concepts and Design of Metabolism |
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245 | (36) |
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Chapter 14 Digestion: Turning a Meal into Cellular Biochemicals |
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247 | (10) |
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14.1 Digestion Prepares Large Biomolecules for Use in Metabolism |
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247 | (1) |
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Most Digestive Enzymes Are Secreted as Inactive Precursors |
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248 | (1) |
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14.2 Proteases Digest Proteins into Amino Acids and Peptides |
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248 | (3) |
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NEW Clinical Insight Protein Digestion Begins in the Stomach |
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248 | (1) |
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NEW Protein Digestion Continues in the Intestine |
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249 | (2) |
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NEW Clinical Insight Celiac Disease Results from the Inability to Properly Digest Certain Proteins |
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251 | (1) |
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14.3 Dietary Carbohydrates Are Digested by Alpha-Amylase |
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251 | (1) |
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14.4 The Digestion of Lipids Is Complicated by Their Hydrophobicity |
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252 | (5) |
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Biological Insight Snake Venoms Digest from the Inside Out |
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254 | (3) |
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Chapter 15 Metabolism: Basic Concepts and Design |
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257 | (24) |
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15.1 Energy Is Required to Meet Three NEW Fundamental Needs |
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258 | (1) |
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15.2 Metabolism Is Composed of Many Interconnecting Reactions |
|
|
258 | (2) |
|
Metabolism Consists of Energy-Yielding Reactions and Energy-Requiring Reactions |
|
|
259 | (1) |
|
A Thermodynamically Unfavorable Reaction Can Be Driven by a Favorable Reaction |
|
|
260 | (1) |
|
15.3 ATP Is the Universal Currency of Free Energy |
|
|
260 | (6) |
|
ATP Hydrolysis Is Exergonic |
|
|
261 | (1) |
|
ATP Hydrolysis Drives Metabolism by Shifting the Equilibrium of Coupled Reactions |
|
|
261 | (2) |
|
The High Phosphoryl-Transfer Potential of ATP Results from Structural Differences Between ATP and Its Hydrolysis Products |
|
|
263 | (1) |
|
Phosphoryl-Transfer Potential Is an Important Form of Cellular Energy Transformation |
|
|
264 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Exercise Depends on Various Means of Generating ATP |
|
|
265 | (1) |
|
Phosphates Play a Prominent Role in Biochemical Processes |
|
|
266 | (1) |
|
15.4 The Oxidation of Carbon Fuels Is an Important Source of Cellular Energy |
|
|
266 | (2) |
|
Carbon Oxidation Is Paired with a Reduction |
|
|
266 | (1) |
|
Compounds with High Phosphoryl-Transfer Potential Can Couple Carbon Oxidation to ATP Synthesis |
|
|
267 | (1) |
|
15.5 Metabolic Pathways Contain Many Recurring Motifs |
|
|
268 | (5) |
|
Activated Carriers Exemplify the Modular Design and Economy of Metabolism |
|
|
268 | (3) |
|
Clinical Insight Lack of Activated Pantothenate Results in Neurological Problems |
|
|
271 | (1) |
|
Many Activated Carriers Are Derived from Vitamins |
|
|
271 | (2) |
|
15.6 Metabolic Processes Are Regulated in Three Principal Ways |
|
|
273 | (8) |
|
The Amounts of Enzymes Are Controlled |
|
|
274 | (1) |
|
Catalytic Activity Is Regulated |
|
|
274 | (1) |
|
The Accessibility of Substrates Is Regulated |
|
|
275 | (6) |
|
SECTION 7 Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis |
|
|
281 | (48) |
|
|
|
283 | (30) |
|
16.1 Glycolysis Is an Energy-Conversion Pathway |
|
|
284 | (7) |
|
Hexokinase Traps Glucose in the Cell and Begins Glycolysis |
|
|
284 | (2) |
|
Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Is Generated from Glucose 6-phosphate |
|
|
286 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight The Six-Carbon Sugar Is Cleaved into Two Three-Carbon Fragments |
|
|
287 | (1) |
|
The Oxidation of an Aldehyde Powers the Formation of a Compound Having High Phosphoryl-Transfer Potential |
|
|
288 | (1) |
|
ATP Is Formed by Phosphoryl Transfer from 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate |
|
|
289 | (1) |
|
Additional ATP Is Generated with the Formation of Pyruvate |
|
|
290 | (1) |
|
Two ATP Molecules Are Formed in the Conversion of Glucose into Pyruvate |
|
|
291 | (1) |
|
16.2 NAD+ Is Regenerated from the Metabolism of Pyruvate |
|
|
291 | (3) |
|
Fermentations Are a Means of Oxidizing NADH |
|
|
292 | (2) |
|
Biological Insight Fermentations Provide Usable Energy in the Absence of Oxygen |
|
|
294 | (1) |
|
16.3 Fructose and Galactose Are Converted into Glycolytic Intermediates |
|
|
294 | (5) |
|
NEW Fructose Is Converted into Glycolytic Intermediates by Fructokinase |
|
|
295 | (1) |
|
NEW Clinical Insight Excessive Fructose Consumption Can Lead to Pathological Conditions |
|
|
295 | (1) |
|
NEW Galactose Is Converted into Glucose 6-phosphate |
|
|
296 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Many Adults Are Intolerant of Milk Because They Are Deficient in Lactase |
|
|
297 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Galactose Is Highly Toxic If the Transferase Is Missing |
|
|
298 | (1) |
|
16.4 The Glycolytic Pathway Is Tightly Controlled |
|
|
299 | (6) |
|
Glycolysis in Muscle Is Regulated by Feedback Inhibition to Meet the Need for ATP |
|
|
299 | (1) |
|
The Regulation of Glycolysis in the Liver Corresponds to the Biochemical Versatility of the Liver |
|
|
300 | (3) |
|
A Family of Transporters Enables Glucose to Enter and Leave Animal Cells |
|
|
303 | (1) |
|
NEW Clinical Insight Aerobic Glycolysis Is a Property of Rapidly Growing Cells |
|
|
304 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Cancer and Exercise Training Affect Glycolysis in a Similar Fashion |
|
|
305 | (1) |
|
16.5 Metabolism in Context: Glycolysis Helps Pancreatic Beta Cells Sense Glucose |
|
|
305 | (8) |
|
Chapter 17 Gluconeogenesis |
|
|
313 | (16) |
|
17.1 Glucose Can Be Synthesized from Noncarbohydrate Precursors |
|
|
314 | (6) |
|
Gluconeogenesis Is Not a Complete Reversal of Glycolysis |
|
|
314 | (2) |
|
The Conversion of Pyruvate into Phosphoenolpyruvate Begins with the Formation of Oxaloacetate |
|
|
316 | (1) |
|
Oxaloacetate Is Shuttled into the Cytoplasm and Converted into Phosphoenolpyruvate |
|
|
317 | (1) |
|
The Conversion of Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate into Fructose 6-phosphate and Orthophosphate Is an Irreversible Step |
|
|
318 | (1) |
|
The Generation of Free Glucose Is an Important Control Point |
|
|
319 | (1) |
|
Six High-Transfer-Potential Phosphoryl Groups Are Spent in Synthesizing Glucose from Pyruvate |
|
|
319 | (1) |
|
17.2 Gluconeogenesis and Glycolysis Are Reciprocally Regulated |
|
|
320 | (4) |
|
Energy Charge Determines Whether Glycolysis or Gluconeogenesis Will Be More Active |
|
|
320 | (1) |
|
The Balance Between Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis in the Liver Is Sensitive to Blood-Glucose Concentration |
|
|
321 | (2) |
|
Clinical Insight Insulin Fails to Inhibit Gluconeogenesis in Type 2 Diabetes |
|
|
323 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Substrate Cycles Amplify Metabolic Signals |
|
|
323 | (1) |
|
17.3 Metabolism in Context: Precursors Formed by Muscle Are Used by Other Organs |
|
|
324 | (5) |
|
SECTION 8 The Citric Acid Cycle |
|
|
329 | (32) |
|
Chapter 18 Preparation for the Cycle |
|
|
331 | (12) |
|
18.1 Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Forms Acetyl Coenzyme A from Pyruvate |
|
|
332 | (5) |
|
The Synthesis of Acetyl Coenzyme A from Pyruvate Requires Three Enzymes and Five Coenzymes |
|
|
333 | (2) |
|
Flexible Linkages Allow Lipoamide to Move Between Different Active Sites |
|
|
335 | (2) |
|
18.2 The Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex Is Regulated by Two Mechanisms |
|
|
337 | (6) |
|
Clinical Insight Defective Regulation of Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Results in Lactic Acidosis |
|
|
338 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Enhanced Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Kinase Activity Facilitates the Development of Cancer |
|
|
339 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight The Disruption of Pyruvate Metabolism Is the Cause of Beriberi |
|
|
339 | (4) |
|
Chapter 19 Harvesting Electrons from the Cycle |
|
|
343 | (18) |
|
19.1 The Citric Acid Cycle Consists of Two Stages |
|
|
344 | (1) |
|
19.2 Stage One Oxidizes Two Carbon Atoms to Gather Energy-Rich Electrons |
|
|
344 | (3) |
|
Citrate Synthase Forms Citrate from Oxaloacetate and Acetyl Coenzyme A |
|
|
344 | (1) |
|
The Mechanism of Citrate Synthase Prevents Undesirable Reactions |
|
|
345 | (1) |
|
Citrate Is Isomerized into Isocitrate |
|
|
346 | (1) |
|
Isocitrate Is Oxidized and Decarboxylated to Alpha-Ketoglutarate |
|
|
346 | (1) |
|
Succinyl Coenzyme A Is Formed by the Oxidative Decarboxylation of Alpha-Ketoglutarate |
|
|
347 | (1) |
|
19.3 Stage Two Regenerates Oxaloacetate and Harvests Energy-Rich Electrons |
|
|
347 | (5) |
|
A Compound with High Phosphoryl-Transfer Potential Is Generated from Succinyl Coenzyme A |
|
|
347 | (1) |
|
Succinyl Coenzyme A Synthetase Transforms Types of Biochemical Energy |
|
|
348 | (1) |
|
Oxaloacetate Is Regenerated by the Oxidation of Succinate |
|
|
349 | (1) |
|
The Citric Acid Cycle Produces High-Transfer-Potential Electrons, an ATP, and Carbon Dioxide |
|
|
349 | (3) |
|
19.4 The Citric Acid Cycle Is Regulated |
|
|
352 | (3) |
|
The Citric Acid Cycle Is Controlled at Several Points |
|
|
352 | (1) |
|
The Citric Acid Cycle Is a Source of Biosynthetic Precursors |
|
|
353 | (1) |
|
The Citric Acid Cycle Must Be Capable of Being Rapidly Replenished |
|
|
353 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Defects in the Citric Acid Cycle Contribute to the Development of Cancer |
|
|
354 | (1) |
|
19.5 The Glyoxylate Cycle Enables Plants and Bacteria to Convert Fats into Carbohydrates |
|
|
355 | (6) |
|
SECTION 9 Oxidative Phosphorylation |
|
|
361 | (44) |
|
Chapter 20 The Electron-Transport Chain |
|
|
363 | (20) |
|
20.1 Oxidative Phosphorylation in Eukaryotes Takes Place in Mitochondria |
|
|
364 | (2) |
|
Mitochondria Are Bounded by a Double Membrane |
|
|
364 | (1) |
|
Biological Insight Mitochondria Are the Result of an Endosymbiotic Event |
|
|
365 | (1) |
|
20.2 Oxidative Phosphorylation Depends on Electron Transfer |
|
|
366 | (5) |
|
The Electron-Transfer Potential of an Electron Is W Measured as Redox Potential |
|
|
366 | (1) |
|
Electron Flow Through the Electron-Transport Chain Creates a Proton Gradient |
|
|
367 | (1) |
|
The Electron-Transport Chain Is a Series of Coupled Oxidation-Reduction Reactions |
|
|
368 | (3) |
|
NEW Clinical Insight Loss of Iron-Sulfur Cluster Results in Friedreich's Ataxia |
|
|
371 | (1) |
|
20.3 The Respiratory Chain Consists of Proton Pumps and a Physical Link to the Citric Acid Cycle |
|
|
371 | (12) |
|
The High-Potential Electrons of NADH Enter the Respiratory Chain at NADH-Q Oxidoreductase |
|
|
371 | (2) |
|
Ubiquinol Is the Entry Point for Electrons from FADH2 of Flavoproteins |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
Electrons Flow from Ubiquinol to Cytochrome c Through Q-Cytochrome c Oxidoreductase |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
The Q Cycle Funnels Electrons from a Two-Electron Carrier to a One-Electron Carrier and Pumps Protons |
|
|
374 | (1) |
|
Cytochrome c Oxidase Catalyzes the Reduction of Molecular Oxygen to Water |
|
|
375 | (2) |
|
Biological Insight The Dead Zone: Too Much Respiration |
|
|
377 | (1) |
|
Toxic Derivatives of Molecular Oxygen Such As Superoxide Radical Are Scavenged by Protective Enzymes |
|
|
377 | (6) |
|
Chapter 21 The Proton-Motive Force |
|
|
383 | (22) |
|
21.1 A Proton Gradient Powers the Synthesis of ATP |
|
|
384 | (6) |
|
ATP Synthase Is Composed of a Proton-Conducting Unit and a Catalytic Unit |
|
|
385 | (1) |
|
Proton Flow Through ATP Synthase Leads to the Release of Tightly Bound ATP |
|
|
386 | (1) |
|
Rotational Catalysis Is the World's Smallest Molecular Motor |
|
|
387 | (1) |
|
Proton Flow Around the c Ring Powers ATP Synthesis |
|
|
388 | (2) |
|
21.2 Shuttles Allow Movement Across Mitochondrial Membranes |
|
|
390 | (3) |
|
Electrons from Cytoplasmic NADH Enter Mitochondria by Shuttles |
|
|
390 | (2) |
|
The Entry of ADP into Mitochondria Is Coupled to the Exit of ATP |
|
|
392 | (1) |
|
Mitochondrial Transporters Allow Metabolite Exchange Between the Cytoplasm and Mitochondria |
|
|
393 | (1) |
|
21.3 Cellular Respiration Is Regulated by the Need for ATP |
|
|
393 | (12) |
|
The Complete Oxidation of Glucose Yields About 30 Molecules of ATP |
|
|
393 | (2) |
|
The Rate of Oxidative Phosphorylation Is Determined by the Need for ATP |
|
|
395 | (1) |
|
NEW Clinical Insight ATP Synthase Can Be Regulated |
|
|
395 | (1) |
|
Biological Insight Regulated Uncoupling Leads to the Generation of Heat |
|
|
396 | (2) |
|
Clinical Insight Oxidative Phosphorylation Can Be Inhibited at Many Stages |
|
|
398 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Mitochondrial Diseases Are Being Discovered in Increasing Numbers |
|
|
399 | (1) |
|
Power Transmission by Proton Gradients Is a Central Motif of Bioenergetics |
|
|
400 | (5) |
|
SECTION 10 The Light Reactions of Photosynthesis and the Calvin Cycle |
|
|
405 | (38) |
|
Chapter 22 The Light Reactions |
|
|
407 | (20) |
|
22.1 Photosynthesis Takes Place in Chloroplasts |
|
|
408 | (1) |
|
Biological Insight Chloroplasts, Like Mitochondria, Arose from an Endosymbiotic Event |
|
|
409 | (1) |
|
22.2 Photosynthesis Transforms Light Energy into Chemical Energy |
|
|
409 | (4) |
|
Chlorophyll Is the Primary Receptor in Most Photosynthetic Systems |
|
|
410 | (1) |
|
Light-Harvesting Complexes Enhance the Efficiency of Photosynthesis |
|
|
411 | (2) |
|
Biological Insight Chlorophyll in Potatoes Suggests the Presence of a Toxin |
|
|
413 | (1) |
|
22.3 Two Photosystems Generate a Proton Gradient and NADPH |
|
|
413 | (5) |
|
Photosystem I Uses Light Energy to Generate Reduced Ferredoxin, a Powerful Reductant |
|
|
414 | (1) |
|
Photosystem II Transfers Electrons to Photosystem I and Generates a Proton Gradient |
|
|
415 | (1) |
|
Cytochrome Links Photosystem II to Photosystem I |
|
|
416 | (1) |
|
The Oxidation of Water Achieves Oxidation-Reduction Balance and Contributes Protons to the Proton Gradient |
|
|
416 | (2) |
|
22.4 A Proton Gradient Drives ATP Synthesis |
|
|
418 | (9) |
|
The ATP Synthase of Chloroplasts Closely Resembles That of Mitochondria |
|
|
418 | (1) |
|
NEW The Activity of Chloroplast ATP Synthase Is Regulated |
|
|
419 | (1) |
|
Cyclic Electron Flow Through Photosystem I Leads to the Production of ATP Instead of NADPH |
|
|
419 | (1) |
|
The Absorption of Eight Photons Yields One O2, Two NADPH, and Three ATP Molecules |
|
|
420 | (1) |
|
The Components of Photosynthesis Are Highly Organized |
|
|
421 | (1) |
|
Biological Insight Many Herbicides Inhibit the Light Reactions of Photosynthesis |
|
|
421 | (6) |
|
Chapter 23 The Calvin Cycle |
|
|
427 | (16) |
|
23.1 The Calvin Cycle Synthesizes Hexoses from Carbon Dioxide and Water |
|
|
428 | (6) |
|
Carbon Dioxide Reacts with Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate to Form Two Molecules of 3-Phosphoglycerate |
|
|
429 | (1) |
|
Hexose Phosphates Are Made from Phosphoglycerate, and Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate Is Regenerated |
|
|
430 | (1) |
|
Three Molecules of ATP and Two Molecules of NADPH Are Used to Bring Carbon Dioxide to the Level of a Hexose |
|
|
430 | (2) |
|
Biological Insight A Volcanic Eruption Can Affect Photosynthesis Worldwide |
|
|
432 | (1) |
|
Starch and Sucrose Are the Major Carbohydrate Stores in Plants |
|
|
433 | (1) |
|
Biological Insight Why Bread Becomes Stale: The Role of Starch |
|
|
434 | (1) |
|
23.2 The Calvin Cycle Is Regulated by the Environment |
|
|
434 | (9) |
|
Thioredoxin Plays a Key Role in Regulating the Calvin Cycle |
|
|
435 | (1) |
|
Rubisco Also Catalyzes a Wasteful Oxygenase Reaction |
|
|
436 | (1) |
|
The C4 Pathway of Tropical Plants Accelerates Photosynthesis by Concentrating Carbon Dioxide |
|
|
436 | (2) |
|
Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Permits Growth in Arid Ecosystems |
|
|
438 | (5) |
|
SECTION 11 Glycogen Metabolism and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway |
|
|
443 | (44) |
|
Chapter 24 Glycogen Degradation |
|
|
445 | (14) |
|
24.1 Glycogen Breakdown Requires Several Enzymes |
|
|
446 | (3) |
|
Phosphorylase Cleaves Glycogen to Release Glucose 1-phosphate |
|
|
446 | (1) |
|
A Debranching Enzyme Also Is Needed for the Breakdown of Glycogen |
|
|
447 | (1) |
|
Phosphoglucomutase Converts Glucose 1-phosphate into Glucose 6-phosphate |
|
|
448 | (1) |
|
Liver Contains Glucose 6-phosphatase, a Hydrolytic Enzyme Absent from Muscle |
|
|
448 | (1) |
|
24.2 Phosphorylase Is Regulated by Allosteric Interactions and Reversible Phosphorylation |
|
|
449 | (4) |
|
Liver Phosphorylase Produces Glucose for Use by Other Tissues |
|
|
449 | (1) |
|
Muscle Phosphorylase Is Regulated by the Intracellular Energy Charge |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
Biochemical Characteristics of Muscle Fiber Types Differ |
|
|
451 | (1) |
|
NEW Phosphorylation Promotes the Conversion of Phosphorylase b to Phosphorylase a |
|
|
451 | (1) |
|
Phosphorylase Kinase Is Activated by Phosphorylation and Calcium Ions |
|
|
452 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Hers Disease Is Due to a Phosphorylase Deficiency |
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
24.3 Epinephrine and Glucagon Signal the Need for Glycogen Breakdown |
|
|
453 | (6) |
|
G Proteins Transmit the Signal for the Initiation of Glycogen Breakdown |
|
|
453 | (2) |
|
Glycogen Breakdown Must Be Rapidly Turned Off When Necessary |
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
Biological Insight Glycogen Depletion Coincides with the Onset of Fatigue |
|
|
455 | (4) |
|
Chapter 25 Glycogen Synthesis |
|
|
459 | (14) |
|
25.1 Glycogen Is Synthesized and Degraded by Different Pathways |
|
|
459 | (3) |
|
UDP-Glucose Is an Activated Form of Glucose |
|
|
460 | (1) |
|
Glycogen Synthase Catalyzes the Transfer of Glucose from UDP-Glucose to a Growing Chain |
|
|
460 | (1) |
|
A Branching Enzyme Forms Alpha-1,6 Linkages |
|
|
461 | (1) |
|
Glycogen Synthase Is the Key Regulatory Enzyme in Glycogen Synthesis |
|
|
461 | (1) |
|
Glycogen Is an Efficient Storage Form of Glucose |
|
|
462 | (1) |
|
25.2 Metabolism in Context: Glycogen Breakdown and Synthesis Are Reciprocally Regulated |
|
|
462 | (11) |
|
Protein Phosphatase 1 Reverses the Regulatory Effects of Kinases on Glycogen Metabolism |
|
|
462 | (2) |
|
Insulin Stimulates Glycogen Synthesis by Inactivating Glycogen Synthase Kinase |
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
Glycogen Metabolism in the Liver Regulates the Blood-Glucose Concentration |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Diabetes Mellitus Results from Insulin Insufficiency and Glucagon Excess |
|
|
466 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight A Biochemical Understanding of Glycogen-Storage Diseases Is Possible |
|
|
467 | (6) |
|
Chapter 26 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway |
|
|
473 | (14) |
|
26.1 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway Yields NADPH and Five-Carbon Sugars |
|
|
474 | (4) |
|
Two Molecules of NADPH Are Generated in the Conversion of Glucose 6-phosphate into Ribulose 5-phosphate |
|
|
474 | (1) |
|
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway and Glycolysis Are Linked by Transketolase and Transaldolase |
|
|
474 | (4) |
|
26.2 Metabolism in Context: Glycolysis and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway Are Coordinately Controlled |
|
|
478 | (3) |
|
The Rate of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway Is Controlled by the Level of NADP+ |
|
|
478 | (1) |
|
The Fate of Glucose 6-phosphate Depends on the Need for NADPH, Ribose 5-phosphate, and ATP |
|
|
478 | (3) |
|
NEW Clinical Insight The Pentose Phosphate Pathway Is Required For Rapid Cell Growth |
|
|
481 | (1) |
|
26.3 Glucose 6-phosphate Dehydrogenase Lessens Oxidative Stress |
|
|
481 | (6) |
|
Clinical Insight Glucose 6-phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency Causes a Drug-Induced Hemolytic Anemia |
|
|
481 | (2) |
|
Biological Insight A Deficiency of Glucose 6-phosphate Dehydrogenase Confers an Evolutionary Advantage in Some Circumstances |
|
|
483 | (4) |
|
SECTION 12 Fatty Acid and Lipid Metabolism |
|
|
487 | (62) |
|
Chapter 27 Fatty Acid Degradation |
|
|
489 | (18) |
|
27.1 Fatty Acids Are Processed in Three Stages |
|
|
489 | (6) |
|
Clinical Insight Triacylglycerols Are Hydrolyzed by Hormone-Stimulated Lipases |
|
|
490 | (1) |
|
NEW Free Fatty Acids and Glycerol Are Released into the Blood |
|
|
491 | (1) |
|
Fatty Acids Are Linked to Coenzyme A Before They Are Oxidized |
|
|
491 | (2) |
|
Clinical Insight Pathological Conditions Result if Fatty Acids Cannot Enter the Mitochondria |
|
|
493 | (1) |
|
Acetyl CoA, NADH, and FADH2 Are Generated by Fatty Acid Oxidation |
|
|
493 | (2) |
|
The Complete Oxidation of Palmitate Yields 106 Molecules of ATP |
|
|
495 | (1) |
|
27.2 The Degradation of Unsaturated and Odd-Chain Fatty Acids Requires Additional Steps |
|
|
495 | (2) |
|
An Isomerase and a Reductase Are Required for the Oxidation of Unsaturated Fatty Acids |
|
|
495 | (2) |
|
Odd-Chain Fatty Acids Yield Propionyl CoA in the Final Thiolysis Step |
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
27.3 Ketone Bodies Are Another Fuel Source Derived from Fats |
|
|
497 | (2) |
|
Ketone-Body Synthesis Takes Place in the Liver |
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
NEW Clinical Insight Ketogenic Diets May Have Therapeutic Properties |
|
|
498 | (1) |
|
Animals Cannot Convert Fatty Acids into Glucose |
|
|
498 | (1) |
|
27.4 Metabolism in Context: Fatty Acid Metabolism Is a Source of Insight into Various Physiological States |
|
|
499 | (8) |
|
Clinical Insight Diabetes Can Lead to a Life-Threatening Excess of Ketone-Body Production |
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Ketone Bodies Are a Crucial Fuel Source During Starvation |
|
|
500 | (1) |
|
NEW Clinical Insight Some Fatty Acids May Contribute to the Development of Pathological Conditions |
|
|
501 | (6) |
|
Chapter 28 Fatty Acid Synthesis |
|
|
507 | (16) |
|
28.1 Fatty Acid Synthesis Takes Place in Three Stages |
|
|
507 | (7) |
|
Citrate Carries Acetyl Groups from Mitochondria to the Cytoplasm |
|
|
508 | (1) |
|
Several Sources Supply NADPH for Fatty Acid Synthesis |
|
|
508 | (1) |
|
The Formation of Malonyl CoA Is the Committed Step in Fatty Acid Synthesis |
|
|
509 | (1) |
|
Fatty Acid Synthesis Consists of a Series of Condensation, Reduction, Dehydration, and Reduction Reactions |
|
|
510 | (2) |
|
The Synthesis of Palmitate Requires 8 Molecules of Acetyl CoA, 14 Molecules of NADPH, and 7 Molecules of ATP |
|
|
512 | (1) |
|
Fatty Acids Are Synthesized by a Multifunctional Enzyme Complex in Animals |
|
|
512 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Fatty Acid Metabolism Is Altered in Tumor Cells |
|
|
513 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight A Small Fatty Acid That Causes Big Problems |
|
|
513 | (1) |
|
28.2 Additional Enzymes Elongate and Desaturate Fatty Acids |
|
|
514 | (2) |
|
Membrane-Bound Enzymes Generate Unsaturated Fatty Acids |
|
|
514 | (1) |
|
Eicosanoid Hormones Are Derived from Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids |
|
|
514 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Aspirin Exerts Its Effects by Covalently Modifying a Key Enzyme |
|
|
515 | (1) |
|
28.3 Acetyl CoA Carboxylase Is a Key Regulator of Fatty Acid Metabolism |
|
|
516 | (1) |
|
Acetyl CoA Carboxylase Is Regulated by Conditions in the Cell |
|
|
516 | (1) |
|
Acetyl CoA Carboxylase Is Regulated by a Variety of Hormones |
|
|
516 | (1) |
|
28.4 Metabolism in Context: Ethanol Alters Energy Metabolism in the Liver |
|
|
517 | (6) |
|
Chapter 29 Lipid Synthesis: Storage Lipids, Phospholipids, and Cholesterol |
|
|
523 | (26) |
|
29.1 Phosphatidate Is a Precursor of Storage Lipids and Many Membrane Lipids |
|
|
523 | (6) |
|
Triacylglycerol Is Synthesized from Phosphatidate in Two Steps |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
Phospholipid Synthesis Requires Activated Precursors |
|
|
524 | (2) |
|
NEW Clinical Insight Phosphatidylcholine Is an Abundant Phospholipid |
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
Sphingolipids Are Synthesized from Ceramide |
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Gangliosides Serve as Binding Sites for Pathogens |
|
|
527 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Disrupted Lipid Metabolism Results in Respiratory Distress Syndrome and Tay-Sachs Disease |
|
|
528 | (1) |
|
Phosphatidic Acid Phosphatase Is a Key Regulatory Enzyme in Lipid Metabolism |
|
|
529 | (1) |
|
29.2 Cholesterol Is Synthesized from Acetyl Coenzyme A in Three Stages |
|
|
529 | (3) |
|
The Synthesis of Mevalonate Initiates the Synthesis of Cholesterol |
|
|
530 | (1) |
|
Squalene (C30) Is Synthesized from Six Molecules of Isopentenyl Pyrophosphate (C5) |
|
|
530 | (2) |
|
Squalene Cyclizes to Form Cholesterol |
|
|
532 | (1) |
|
29.3 The Regulation of Cholesterol Synthesis Takes Place at Several Levels |
|
|
532 | (2) |
|
29.4 Lipoproteins Transport Cholesterol and Triacylglycerols Throughout the Organism |
|
|
534 | (5) |
|
Low-Density Lipoproteins Play a Central Role in Cholesterol Metabolism |
|
|
535 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight The Absence of the LDL Receptor Leads to Familial Hypercholesterolemia and Atherosclerosis |
|
|
536 | (1) |
|
NEW Clinical Insight Cycling of the LDL Receptor Is Regulated |
|
|
537 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight HDL Seems to Protect Against Atherosclerosis |
|
|
537 | (1) |
|
NEW Clinical Insight The Clinical Management of Cholesterol Levels Can Be Understood at a Biochemical Level |
|
|
538 | (1) |
|
29.5 Cholesterol Is the Precursor of Steroid Hormones |
|
|
539 | (10) |
|
NEW Clinical Insight Bile Salts Facilitate Lipid Absorption |
|
|
539 | (1) |
|
Steroid Hormones Are Crucial Signal Molecules |
|
|
539 | (1) |
|
Vitamin D Is Derived from Cholesterol by the Energy of Sunlight |
|
|
540 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Vitamin D Is Necessary for Bone Development |
|
|
541 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Androgens Can Be Used to Artificially Enhance Athletic Performance |
|
|
542 | (1) |
|
Oxygen Atoms Are Added to Steroids by Cytochrome P450 Monooxygenases |
|
|
542 | (1) |
|
Metabolism in Context: Ethanol Also Is Processed by the Cytochrome P450 System |
|
|
543 | (6) |
|
SECTION 13 The Metabolism of Nitrogen-Containing Molecules |
|
|
549 | (56) |
|
Chapter 30 Amino Acid Degradation and the Urea Cycle |
|
|
551 | (20) |
|
30.1 Nitrogen Removal Is the First Step in the Degradation of Amino Acids |
|
|
552 | (3) |
|
Alpha-Amino Groups Are Converted into Ammonium Ions by the Oxidative Deamination of Glutamate |
|
|
552 | (1) |
|
NEW Clinical Insight Blood Levels of Amonitransferases Serve a Diagnostic Function |
|
|
553 | (1) |
|
NEW Serine and Threonine Can Be Directly Deaminated |
|
|
553 | (1) |
|
Peripheral Tissues Transport Nitrogen to the Liver |
|
|
554 | (1) |
|
30.2 Ammonium Ion Is Converted into Urea in Most Terrestrial Vertebrates |
|
|
555 | (4) |
|
NEW Carbamoyl Phosphate Synthetase Is the Key Regulatory Enzyme for Urea Synthesis |
|
|
556 | (1) |
|
NEW Carbamoyl Phosphate Reacts with Ornithine to Begin the Urea Cycle |
|
|
556 | (1) |
|
The Urea Cycle Is Linked to Gluconeogenesis |
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Metabolism in Context: Inherited Defects of the Urea Cycle Cause Hyperammonemia |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
Biological Insight Hibernation Presents Nitrogen Disposal Problems |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
Biological Insight Urea Is Not the Only Means of Disposing of Excess Nitrogen |
|
|
559 | (1) |
|
30.3 Carbon Atoms of Degraded Amino Acids Emerge as Major Metabolic Intermediates |
|
|
559 | (12) |
|
Pyruvate Is a Point of Entry into Metabolism |
|
|
560 | (1) |
|
Oxaloacetate Is Another Point of Entry into Metabolism |
|
|
561 | (1) |
|
Alpha-Ketoglutarate Is Yet Another Point of Entry into Metabolism |
|
|
561 | (1) |
|
Succinyl Coenzyme A Is a Point of Entry for Several Nonpolar Amino Acids |
|
|
562 | (1) |
|
The Branched-Chain Amino Acids Yield Acetyl Coenzyme A, Acetoacetate, or Succinyl Coenzyme A |
|
|
562 | (1) |
|
Oxygenases Are Required for the Degradation of Aromatic Amino Acids |
|
|
563 | (2) |
|
Methionine Is Degraded into Succinyl Coenzyme A |
|
|
565 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Inborn Errors of Metabolism Can Disrupt Amino Acid Degradation |
|
|
565 | (1) |
|
NEW Clinical Insight Determining the Basis of the Neurological Symptoms of Phenylketonuria Is an Active Area of Research |
|
|
566 | (5) |
|
Chapter 31 Amino Acid Synthesis |
|
|
571 | (14) |
|
31.1 The Nitrogenase Complex Fixes Nitrogen |
|
|
572 | (2) |
|
The Molybdenum-Iron Cofactor of Nitrogenase Binds and Reduces Atmospheric Nitrogen |
|
|
573 | (1) |
|
Ammonium Ion Is Incorporated into an Amino Acid Through Glutamate and Glutamine |
|
|
573 | (1) |
|
31.2 Amino Acids Are Made from Intermediates of Major Pathways |
|
|
574 | (5) |
|
Human Beings Can Synthesize Some Amino Acids but Must Obtain Others from the Diet |
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
Some Amino Acids Can Be Made by Simple Transamination Reactions |
|
|
575 | (1) |
|
Serine, Cysteine, and Glycine Are Formed from 3-Phosphoglycerate |
|
|
576 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Tetrahydrofolate Carries Activated One-Carbon Units |
|
|
576 | (2) |
|
S-Adenosylmethionine Is the Major Donor of Methyl Groups |
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight High Homocysteine Levels Correlate with Vascular Disease |
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
31.3 Feedback Inhibition Regulates Amino Acid Biosynthesis |
|
|
579 | (6) |
|
The Committed Step Is the Common Site of Regulation |
|
|
579 | (1) |
|
Branched Pathways Require Sophisticated Regulation |
|
|
579 | (6) |
|
Chapter 32 Nucleotide Metabolism |
|
|
585 | (20) |
|
32.1 An Overview of Nucleotide Biosynthesis and Nomenclature |
|
|
586 | (1) |
|
32.2 The Pyrimidine Ring Is Assembled and Then Attached to a Ribose Sugar |
|
|
587 | (3) |
|
CTP Is Formed by the Amination of UTP |
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
Kinases Convert Nucleoside Monophosphates into Nucleoside Triphosphates |
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
NEW Clinical Insight Salvage Pathways Recycle Pyrimidine Bases |
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
32.3 The Purine Ring Is Assembled on Ribose Phosphate |
|
|
590 | (3) |
|
AMP and GMP Are Formed from IMP |
|
|
590 | (2) |
|
Clinical Insight Enzymes of the Purine-Synthesis Pathway Are Associated with One Another in Vivo |
|
|
592 | (1) |
|
Bases Can Be Recycled by Salvage Pathways |
|
|
593 | (1) |
|
32.4 Ribonucleotides Are Reduced to Deoxyribonucleotides |
|
|
593 | (3) |
|
Thymidylate Is Formed by the Methylation of Deoxyuridylate |
|
|
594 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Several Valuable Anticancer Drugs Block the Synthesis of Thymidylate |
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
32.5 Nucleotide Biosynthesis Is Regulated by Feedback Inhibition |
|
|
596 | (2) |
|
Pyrimidine Biosynthesis Is Regulated by Aspartate Transcarbamoylase |
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
The Synthesis of Purine Nucleotides Is Controlled by Feedback Inhibition at Several Sites |
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
NEW Clinical Insight The Synthesis of Deoxyribonucleotides Is Controlled by the Regulation of Ribonucleotide Reductase |
|
|
597 | (1) |
|
32.6 Disruptions in Nucleotide Metabolism Can Cause Pathological Conditions |
|
|
598 | (7) |
|
Clinical Insight The Loss of Adenosine Deaminase Activity Results in Severe Combined Immunodeficiency |
|
|
598 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Gout Is Induced by High Serum Levels of Urate |
|
|
599 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Lesch--Nyhan Syndrome Is a Dramatic Consequence of Mutations in a Salvage-Pathway Enzyme |
|
|
600 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Folic Acid Deficiency Promotes Birth Defects Such As Spina Bifida |
|
|
600 | (5) |
|
PART III Synthesizing the Molecules of Life |
|
|
|
SECTION 14 Nucleic Acid Structure and DNA Replication |
|
|
605 | (52) |
|
Chapter 33 The Structure of Informational Macromolecules: DNA and RNA |
|
|
607 | (20) |
|
33.1 A Nucleic Acid Consists of Bases Linked to a Sugar-Phosphate Backbone |
|
|
608 | (3) |
|
DNA and RNA Differ in the Sugar Component and One of the Bases |
|
|
608 | (1) |
|
Nucleotides Are the Monomeric Units of Nucleic Acids |
|
|
609 | (1) |
|
DNA Molecules Are Very Long and Have Directionality |
|
|
610 | (1) |
|
33.2 Nucleic Acid Strands Can Form a Double-Helical Structure |
|
|
611 | (4) |
|
The Double Helix Is Stabilized by Hydrogen Bonds and the Hydrophobic Effect |
|
|
611 | (2) |
|
The Double Helix Facilitates the Accurate Transmission of Hereditary Information |
|
|
613 | (1) |
|
Meselson and Stahl Demonstrated That Replication Is Semiconservative |
|
|
614 | (1) |
|
The Strands of the Double Helix Can Be Reversibly Separated |
|
|
615 | (1) |
|
33.3 DNA Double Helices Can Adopt Multiple Forms |
|
|
615 | (4) |
|
Z-DNA Is a Left-Handed Double Helix in Which Backbone Phosphoryl Groups Zigzag |
|
|
616 | (1) |
|
The Major and Minor Grooves Are Lined by Sequence-Specific Hydrogen-Bonding Groups |
|
|
616 | (1) |
|
Double-Stranded DNA Can Wrap Around Itself to Form Supercoiled Structures |
|
|
617 | (2) |
|
33.4 Eukaryotic DNA Is Associated with Specific Proteins |
|
|
619 | (3) |
|
Nucleosomes Are Complexes of DNA and Histones |
|
|
619 | (1) |
|
Eukaryotic DNA Is Wrapped Around Histones to Form Nucleosomes |
|
|
620 | (2) |
|
Clinical Insight Damaging DNA Can Inhibit Cancer--Cell Growth |
|
|
622 | (1) |
|
33.5 RNA Can Adopt Elaborate Structures |
|
|
622 | (5) |
|
Chapter 34 DNA Replication |
|
|
627 | (16) |
|
34.1 DNA Is Replicated by Polymerases |
|
|
628 | (5) |
|
DNA Polymerase Catalyzes Phosphodiester-Linkage Formation |
|
|
628 | (2) |
|
The Specificity of Replication Is Dictated by the Complementarity of Bases |
|
|
630 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight The Separation of DNA Strands Requires Specific Helicases and ATP Hydrolysis |
|
|
630 | (2) |
|
Topoisomerases Prepare the Double Helix for Unwinding |
|
|
632 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Bacterial Topoisomerase Is a Therapeutic Target |
|
|
632 | (1) |
|
Many Polymerases Proofread the Newly Added Bases and Excise Errors |
|
|
633 | (1) |
|
34.2 DNA Replication Is Highly Coordinated |
|
|
633 | (10) |
|
DNA Replication in E. coli Begins at a Unique Site |
|
|
634 | (1) |
|
An RNA Primer Synthesized by Primase Enables DNA Synthesis to Begin |
|
|
634 | (1) |
|
One Strand of DNA Is Made Continuously and the Other Strand Is Synthesized in Fragments |
|
|
635 | (1) |
|
DNA Replication Requires Highly Processive Polymerases |
|
|
635 | (1) |
|
The Leading and Lagging Strands Are Synthesized in a Coordinated Fashion |
|
|
636 | (2) |
|
DNA Synthesis Is More Complex in Eukaryotes Than in Bacteria |
|
|
638 | (1) |
|
Telomeres Are Unique Structures at the Ends of Linear Chromosomes |
|
|
638 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Telomeres Are Replicated by Telomerase, a Specialized Polymerase That Carries Its Own RNA Template |
|
|
639 | (4) |
|
Chapter 35 DNA Repair and Recombination |
|
|
643 | (14) |
|
35.1 Errors Can Arise in DNA Replication |
|
|
644 | (3) |
|
Clinical Insight Some Genetic Diseases Are Caused by the Expansion of Repeats of Three Nucleotides |
|
|
644 | (1) |
|
Bases Can Be Damaged by Oxidizing Agents, Alkylating Agents, and Light |
|
|
645 | (2) |
|
35.2 DNA Damage Can Be Detected and Repaired |
|
|
647 | (4) |
|
The Presence of Thymine Instead of Uracil in DNA Permits the Repair of Deaminated Cytosine |
|
|
649 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Many Cancers Are Caused by the Defective Repair of DNA |
|
|
650 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Many Potential Carcinogens Can Be Detected by Their Mutagenic Action on Bacteria |
|
|
650 | (1) |
|
35.3 DNA Recombination Plays Important Roles in Replication and Repair |
|
|
651 | (6) |
|
Double Strand Breaks Can Be Repaired by Recombination |
|
|
652 | (1) |
|
DNA Recombination Is Important in a Variety of Biological Processes |
|
|
652 | (5) |
|
SECTION 15 RNA Synthesis, Processing, and Regulation |
|
|
657 | (48) |
|
Chapter 36 RNA Synthesis and Regulation in Bacteria |
|
|
659 | (16) |
|
36.1 Cellular RNA Is Synthesized by RNA Polymerases |
|
|
659 | (2) |
|
Genes Are the Transcriptional Units |
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
RNA Polymerase Is Composed of Multiple Subunits |
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
36.2 RNA Synthesis Comprises Three Stages |
|
|
661 | (7) |
|
Transcription Is Initiated at Promoter Sites on the DNA Template |
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
Sigma Subunits of RNA Polymerase Recognize Promoter Sites |
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
RNA Strands Grow in the 5'-to-3' Direction |
|
|
663 | (1) |
|
Elongation Takes Place at Transcription Bubbles That Move Along the DNA Template |
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
An RNA Hairpin Followed by Several Uracil Residues Terminates the Transcription of Some Genes |
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
The Rho Protein Helps Terminate the Transcription of Some Genes |
|
|
665 | (1) |
|
Precursors of Transfer and Ribosomal RNA Are Cleaved and Chemically Modified After Transcription |
|
|
666 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Some Antibiotics Inhibit Transcription |
|
|
667 | (1) |
|
36.3 The lac Operon Illustrates the Control of Bacterial Gene Expression |
|
|
668 | (7) |
|
An Operon Consists of Regulatory Elements and Protein-Encoding Genes |
|
|
668 | (1) |
|
Ligand Binding Can Induce Structural Changes in Regulatory Proteins |
|
|
669 | (1) |
|
Transcription Can Be Stimulated by Proteins That Contact RNA Polymerase |
|
|
669 | (1) |
|
Clinical and Biological Insight Many Bacterial Cells Release Chemical Signals That Regulate Gene Expression in Other Cells |
|
|
670 | (1) |
|
Some Messenger RNAs Directly Sense Metabolite Concentrations |
|
|
670 | (5) |
|
Chapter 37 Gene Expression in Eukaryotes |
|
|
675 | (16) |
|
37.1 Eukaryotic Cells Have Three Types of RNA Polymerases |
|
|
676 | (2) |
|
37.2 RNA Polymerase II Requires Complex Regulation |
|
|
678 | (3) |
|
The Transcription Factor IID Protein Complex Initiates the Assembly of the Active Transcription Complex |
|
|
679 | (1) |
|
Enhancer Sequences Can Stimulate Transcription at Start Sites Thousands of Bases Away |
|
|
679 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Inappropriate Enhancer Use May Cause Cancer |
|
|
680 | (1) |
|
Multiple Transcription Factors Interact with Eukaryotic Promoters and Enhancers |
|
|
680 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Can Be Generated by Introducing Four Transcription Factors into Differentiated Cells |
|
|
680 | (1) |
|
37.3 Gene Expression Is Regulated by Hormones |
|
|
681 | (3) |
|
Nuclear Hormone Receptors Have Similar Domain Structures |
|
|
681 | (1) |
|
Nuclear Hormone Receptors Recruit Coactivators and Corepressors |
|
|
682 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Steroid-Hormone Receptors Are Targets for Drugs |
|
|
683 | (1) |
|
37.4 Histone Acetylation Results in Chromatin Remodeling |
|
|
684 | (7) |
|
Metabolism in Context: Acetyl CoA Plays a Key Role in the Regulation of Transcription |
|
|
684 | (2) |
|
Histone Deacetylases Contribute to Transcriptional Repression |
|
|
686 | (5) |
|
Chapter 38 RNA Processing in Eukaryotes |
|
|
691 | (14) |
|
38.1 Mature Ribosomal RNA Is Generated by the Cleavage of a Precursor Molecule |
|
|
692 | (1) |
|
38.2 Transfer RNA Is Extensively Processed |
|
|
692 | (1) |
|
38.3 Messenger RNA Is Modified and Spliced |
|
|
693 | (6) |
|
Sequences at the Ends of Introns Specify Splice Sites in mRNA Precursors |
|
|
694 | (1) |
|
Small Nuclear RNAs in Spliceosomes Catalyze the Splicing of mRNA Precursors |
|
|
695 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Mutations That Affect Pre-mRNA Splicing Cause Disease |
|
|
696 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Most Human Pre-mRNAs Can Be Spliced in Alternative Ways to Yield Different Proteins |
|
|
697 | (1) |
|
The Transcription and Processing of mRNA Are Coupled |
|
|
698 | (1) |
|
Biological Insight RNA Editing Changes the Proteins Encoded by mRNA |
|
|
698 | (1) |
|
38.4 RNA Can Function as a Catalyst |
|
|
699 | (6) |
|
SECTION 16 Protein Synthesis and Recombinant DNA Techniques |
|
|
705 | (2) |
|
Chapter 39 The Genetic Code |
|
|
707 | (14) |
|
39.1 The Genetic Code Links Nucleic Acid and Protein Information |
|
|
708 | (4) |
|
The Genetic Code Is Nearly Universal |
|
|
708 | (1) |
|
Transfer RNA Molecules Have a Common Design |
|
|
709 | (2) |
|
Some Transfer RNA Molecules Recognize More Than One Codon Because of Wobble in Base-Pairing |
|
|
711 | (1) |
|
The Synthesis of Long Proteins Requires a Low Error Frequency |
|
|
712 | (1) |
|
39.2 Amino Acids Are Activated by Attachment to Transfer RNA |
|
|
712 | (3) |
|
Amino Acids Are First Activated by Adenylation |
|
|
713 | (1) |
|
Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases Have Highly Discriminating Amino Acid Activation Sites |
|
|
714 | (1) |
|
Proofreading by Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases Increases the Fidelity of Protein Synthesis |
|
|
714 | (1) |
|
Synthetases Recognize the Anticodon Loops and Acceptor Stems of Transfer RNA Molecules |
|
|
714 | (1) |
|
39.3 A Ribosome Is a Ribonucleoprotein Particle Made of Two Subunits |
|
|
715 | (6) |
|
Ribosomal RNAs Play a Central Role in Protein Synthesis |
|
|
715 | (1) |
|
Messenger RNA Is Translated in the 5'-to-3' Direction |
|
|
716 | (5) |
|
Chapter 40 The Mechanism of Protein Synthesis |
|
|
721 | (22) |
|
40.1 Protein Synthesis Decodes the Information in Messenger RNA |
|
|
722 | (3) |
|
Ribosomes Have Three tRNA-Binding Sites That Bridge the 30S and 50S Subunits |
|
|
722 | (1) |
|
The Start Signal Is AUG Preceded by Several Bases That Pair with 16S Ribosomal RNA |
|
|
722 | (1) |
|
Bacterial Protein Synthesis Is Initiated by Formylmethionyl Transfer RNA |
|
|
723 | (1) |
|
Formylmethionyl-tRNAf Is Placed in the P Site of the Ribosome in the Formation of the 70S Initiation Complex |
|
|
724 | (1) |
|
Elongation Factors Deliver Aminoacyl-tRNA to the Ribosome |
|
|
724 | (1) |
|
40.2 Peptidyl Transferase Catalyzes Peptide-Bond Synthesis |
|
|
725 | (3) |
|
The Formation of a Peptide Bond Is Followed by the GTP-Driven Translocation of tRNAs and mRNA |
|
|
725 | (3) |
|
Protein Synthesis Is Terminated by Release Factors That Read Stop Codons |
|
|
728 | (1) |
|
40.3 Bacteria and Eukaryotes Differ in the Initiation of Protein Synthesis |
|
|
728 | (2) |
|
Clinical Insight Mutations in Initiation Factor 2 Cause a Curious Pathological Condition |
|
|
730 | (1) |
|
40.4 A Variety of Biomolecules Can Inhibit Protein Synthesis |
|
|
730 | (3) |
|
Clinical Insight Some Antibiotics Inhibit Protein Synthesis |
|
|
730 | (1) |
|
Clinical Insight Diphtheria Toxin Blocks Protein Synthesis in Eukaryotes by Inhibiting Translocation |
|
|
731 | (1) |
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Clinical Insight Ricin Fatally Modifies 28S Ribosomal RNA |
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732 | (1) |
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40.5 Ribosomes Bound to the Endoplasmic Reticulum Manufacture Secretory and Membrane Proteins |
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|
733 | (2) |
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Protein Synthesis Begins on Ribosomes That Are Free in the Cytoplasm |
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|
733 | (1) |
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Signal Sequences Mark Proteins for Translocation Across the Endoplasmic Reticulum Membrane |
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733 | (2) |
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40.6 Protein Synthesis Is Regulated by a Number of Mechanisms |
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735 | (8) |
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Messenger RNA Use Is Subject to Regulation |
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735 | (1) |
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The Stability of Messenger RNA Also Can Be Regulated |
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736 | (1) |
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Small RNAs Can Regulate mRNA Stability and Use |
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736 | (7) |
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Chapter 41 Recombinant DNA Techniques |
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743 | (1) |
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41.1 Nucleic Acids Can Be Synthesized from Protein-Sequence Data |
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744 | (1) |
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Protein Sequence Is a Guide to Nucleic Acid Information |
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744 | (1) |
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DNA Probes Can Be Synthesized by Automated Methods |
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744 | (1) |
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41.2 Recombinant DNA Technology Has Revolutionized All Aspects of Biology |
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745 | (3) |
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Restriction Enzymes Split DNA into Specific Fragments |
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|
745 | (1) |
|
Restriction Fragments Can Be Separated by Gel Electrophoresis and Visualized |
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|
746 | (1) |
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Restriction Enzymes and DNA Ligase Are Key Tools for Forming Recombinant DNA Molecules |
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|
747 | (1) |
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41.3 Eukaryotic Genes Can Be Manipulated with Considerable Precision |
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|
748 | |
|
Complementary DNA Prepared from mRNA Can Be Expressed in Host Cells |
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|
748 | (1) |
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Estrogen-Receptor cDNA Can Be Identified by Screening a cDNA Library |
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|
749 | (1) |
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Complementary DNA Libraries Can Be Screened for Synthesized Protein |
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|
750 | (1) |
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Specific Genes Can Be Cloned from Digests of Genomic DNA |
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|
750 | (1) |
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DNA Can Be Sequenced by the Controlled Termination of Replication |
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|
751 | (2) |
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Clinical and Biological Insight Next-Generation Sequencing Methods Enable the Rapid Determination of a Complete Genome Sequence |
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|
753 | (1) |
|
Selected DNA Sequences Can Be Greatly Amplified by the Polymerase Chain Reaction |
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|
754 | (2) |
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Clinical and Biological Insight PCR Is a Powerful Technique in Medical Diagnostics, Forensics, and Studies of Molecular Evolution |
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|
756 | (1) |
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Gene-Expression Levels Can Be Comprehensively Examined |
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|
756 | |
| Appendices |
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1 | (1) |
| Glossary |
|
1 | (1) |
| Answers to Problems |
|
1 | (1) |
| Index |
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1 | |
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Selected Readings (online at www.whfreeman.com/tymoczko3e) |
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1 | |
