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E-grāmata: Magnetotelluric Method: Theory and Practice

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Edited by Alan G. Jones (Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies), Edited by Alan D. Chave (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Massachusetts)

Formāts: PDF+DRM
Izdošanas datums: 26-Apr-2012
Izdevniecība: Cambridge University Press
Valoda: eng
ISBN-13: 9781139368384

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Formāts: PDF+DRM
Izdošanas datums: 26-Apr-2012
Izdevniecība: Cambridge University Press
Valoda: eng
ISBN-13: 9781139368384

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"The magnetotelluric method is a technique for imaging the electrical conductivity and structure of the Earth, from the near surface down to the 410 km transition zone and beyond. This book forms the first comprehensive overview of magnetotellurics from the salient physics and its mathematical representation, to practical implementation in the field, data processing, modeling and geological interpretation. Electromagnetic induction in 1-D, 2-D and 3-D media is explored, building from first principles, and with thorough coverage of the practical techniques of time series processing, distortion, numerical modeling and inversion. The fundamental principles are illustrated with a series of case histories describing geological applications. Technical issues, instrumentation and field practices are described for both land and marine surveys. This book provides a rigorous introduction to magnetotellurics for academic researchers and advanced students and will be of interest to industrial practitioners and geoscientists wanting to incorporate rock conductivity into their interpretations"--

"The Magnetotelluric Method Theory and Practice The magnetotelluric method is a technique for imaging the electrical conductivity and structure of the Earth, from the near surface down to the 410 km transition zone and beyond. It is increasingly used in geological applications and the petroleum industry. This book forms the first comprehensive overview of magnetotellurics from the salient physics and its mathematical representation, to practical implementation in the field, data processing, modeling, andgeological interpretation"--

The magnetotelluric method is a technique for imaging the electrical conductivity and structure of the Earth, from the near surface down to the 410 km transition zone and beyond. This book forms the first comprehensive overview of magnetotellurics from the salient physics and its mathematical representation, to practical implementation in the field, data processing, modeling and geological interpretation. Electromagnetic induction in 1-D, 2-D and 3-D media is explored, building from first principles, and with thorough coverage of the practical techniques of time series processing, distortion, numerical modeling and inversion. The fundamental principles are illustrated with a series of case histories describing geological applications. Technical issues, instrumentation and field practices are described for both land and marine surveys. This book provides a rigorous introduction to magnetotellurics for academic researchers and advanced students and will be of interest to industrial practitioners and geoscientists wanting to incorporate rock conductivity into their interpretations.

Papildus informācija

A rigorous introduction to magnetotelluric imaging of Earth's electrical conductivity and structure, for researchers, advanced students and industrial practitioners.

Preface

List of contributors

xviii

1 Introduction to the magnetotelluric method

(18)

Alan D. Chave

Alan G. Jones

1.1 Introduction

(3)

1.2 A quick tour of magnetotellurics

(3)

1.3 Historical perspective

(3)

1.4 Commercial use of magnetotellurics

(2)

1.5 The future of magnetotellurics

(1)

1.6 More information on magnetotellurics

(1)

1.7 Epilogue

(5)

References

(5)

2 The theoretical basis for electromagnetic induction

(31)

Alan D. Chave

Peter Weidelt

2.1 The Maxwell equations

(1)

2.2 Motional electromagnetic induction

(5)

2.3 Electromagnetic induction by extrinsic sources

(1)

2.4 The one-dimensional approximation

(11)

2.4.1 Modal solutions for the pre-Maxwell equations

(3)

2.4.2 Green's functions

(3)

2.4.3 The poloidal magnetic (PM) mode

(4)

2.4.4 The toroidal magnetic (TM) mode

(1)

2.5 The two-dimensional approximation

(5)

2.5.1 The Maxwell equations in a two-dimensional medium

(3)

2.5.2 Inductive/galvanic coupling and the role of electric charge

(1)

2.5.3 Transverse magnetic mode: the electric field in the air half-space

(1)

2.6 Three-dimensional electromagnetic induction

(8)

2.6.1 The Maxwell equations for three-dimensional media

(2)

2.6.2 The role of anisotropy

(3)

References

(3)

3 Earth's electromagnetic environment

(1)

Rob L. Evans

3A Conductivity of Earth materials

(46)

3A.1 Introduction

(2)

3A.2 Conductivity mechanisms: electronic and semiconduction

(4)

3A.2.1 Electronic conduction

(1)

3A.2.2 Semiconduction: mantle conductivity

(2)

3A.3 Multiple phases and fluids

(7)

3A.3.1 Aqueous fluids

(3)

3A.3.2 Silicate melts

(1)

3A.3.3 Carbonatite melts

(1)

3A.3.4 Sulfidic melts

(1)

3A.3.5 Mixing relationships and interconnectivity

(2)

3A.4 Conductivity structure beneath the oceans

(9)

3A.4.1 Oceanic crust and sediments

(1)

3A.4.2 Compaction and diagenesis

(1)

3A.4.3 Basaltic crust

(1)

3A.4.4 Clays and surface conduction

(1)

3A.4.5 Oceanic mantle

(4)

3A.4.6 Serpentinization

(1)

3A.5 Continents

(7)

3A.5.1 Continental crust

(5)

3A.5.2 Continental lithospheric mantle

(2)

3A.6 Anisotropy

(2)

3A.7 Comments on permeability and conductivity

(1)

3A.8 Summary

(14)

References

(13)

3B Description of the magnetospheric/ionospheric sources

(449)

Ari Viljanen

3B.1 Overview of interaction of Earth with solar wind

(3)

3B.1.1 Major regions

(1)

3B.1.2 Key physical concepts

(2)

3B.2 General description of Earth's external field sources

(10)

3B.2.1 Observation of external current systems

(1)

3B.2.2 Magnetic storms; Dst and the ring current

100

(1)

3B.2.3 Polar substorms; auroral electrojet; field-aligned currents

101

(4)

3B.2.4 Sq and ionospheric tides; equatorial electrojet

105

(1)

3B.2.5 Hydromagnetic waves; Pc disturbances

106

(1)

3B.2.6 Change of mode at about 1 Hz and dead band; Schumann resonances; lightning

107

(1)

3B.2.7 Audiomagnetotelluric sources to 10 kHz

108

(1)

3B.2.8 Annual and solar cycle variations of geomagnetic activity

108

(1)

3B.3 Description of the variation of source field characteristics

109

(13)

3B.3.1 Separation of external and internal contributions

109

(1)

3B.3.2 Spatial characteristics

110

(1)

3B.3.3 Spectral characteristics

110

(1)

3B.3.4 Consequences for the magnetotelluric method

111

(5)

References

116

(6)

4 The magnetotelluric response function

122

(43)

Peter Weidelt

Alan D. Chave

4.1 General concepts

122

(17)

4.1.1 Quasi-uniform source fields

122

(2)

4.1.2 Tensor relation between the electric and magnetic fields

124

(2)

4.1.3 Magnetic transfer functions

126

(1)

4.1.4 Rotational invariants

127

(3)

4.1.5 Electric field distortion: first encounter

130

(4)

4.1.6 The phase tensor

134

(5)

4.2 Properties of the magnetotelluric response function in one dimension

139

(16)

4.2.1 Definitions

139

(1)

4.2.2 Analytical properties in the complex frequency plane

140

(1)

4.2.3 Existence conditions for a set of discrete frequencies

141

(3)

4.2.4 Dispersion relations

144

(2)

4.2.5 Simple approximate mappings of the true resistivity

146

(3)

4.2.6 Interpretation of a(λ) in terms of thin sheets: the D+ model

149

(5)

4.2.7 The rho+model

154

(1)

4.3 Properties of the magnetotelluric response function in two dimensions

155

(5)

4.4 Properties of the magnetotelluric response function in three dimensions

160

(5)

References

162

(3)

5 Estimation of the magnetotelluric response function

165

(138)

Alan D. Chave

5.1 The statistical problem

165

(5)

5.2 Discourse on spectral analysis in magnetotellurics

170

(2)

5.3 Data assessment

172

(7)

5.4 The remote reference method

179

(5)

5.5 Robust magnetotelluric processing 1: M-estimators

184

(8)

5.6 Robust magnetotelluric processing 2: bounded influence estimators

192

(6)

5.7 Preprocessing

198

(3)

5.8 Statistical verification

201

(4)

5.9 Uncertainty estimates for the magnetotelluric response

205

(7)

5.10 Alternative magnetotelluric processing methods

212

(7)

References

215

(4)

6 Distortion of magnetotelluric data: its identification and removal

219

(1)

Alan G. Jones

6.1 Introduction

219

(3)

6.2 Theoretical considerations

222

(7)

6.2.1 General

222

(2)

6.2.2 Groom-Bailey distortion decomposition

224

(5)

6.3 Brief historical review

229

(8)

6.3.1 Berdichevsky's galvanic distortion effects

229

(1)

6.3.2 Larsen's galvanic distortion of a one-dimensional regional Earth

229

(1)

6.3.3 Schmucker's extension for a two-dimensional regional Earth

230

(1)

6.3.4 Bahr's equal phases

231

(1)

6.3.5 Distortion decomposition

231

(1)

6.3.6 Phase tensor

232

(2)

6.3.7 Other approaches

234

(1)

6.3.8 Extension for a three-dimensional regional Earth

235

(2)

6.4 Determinable and indeterminable parts of the distortion tensor

237

(1)

6.5 Statistical considerations

238

(1)

6.6 Influence of distortion on the MT response

239

(11)

6.6.1 A simple but instructive two-dimensional model - the Rhine Graben

239

(3)

6.6.2 A simple but instructive three-dimensional distorting body - the embedded hemisphere

242

(7)

6.6.3 Distorted North American Central Plains (NACP) impedance

249

(1)

6.6.4 BC87 dataset - lit007 and lit008

250

(1)

6.7 Recognizing distortion in magnetotelluric responses

250

(28)

6.7.1 Forms of the magnetotelluric response tensor

250

(3)

6.7.2 Dimensionality tools

253

(15)

6.7.3 Directionality tools

268

(10)

6.8 Removing distortion from magnetotelluric responses

278

(13)

6.8.1 Realistic synthetic data, far-hi

278

(6)

6.8.2 Actual data, lit007 and lit008

284

(7)

6.9 Application to a one-dimensional anisotropic regional Earth

291

(3)

6.10 Conclusions

294

(9)

Acknowledgements

295

(1)

References

295

(8)

7 The two- and three-dimensional forward problems

303

(44)

Chester Weiss

7.1 Introduction

303

(1)

7.2 Numerical methods in two dimensions

304

(5)

7.2.1 Boundary conditions in two dimensions

306

(2)

7.2.2 Summary of the two-dimensional magnetotelluric differential problem statement (D)

308

(1)

7.3 Finite differences, elements, volumes and all that

309

(18)

7.3.1 Finite differences (FD)

310

(2)

7.3.2 Finite elements (FE) and the variational formulation (V)

312

(4)

7.3.3 Finite volumes (FV) and the variational formulation (V)

316

(1)

7.3.4 Numerical examples in two dimensions

317

(10)

7.4 The leap to three dimensions

327

(15)

7.4.1 Finite-difference solutions in three dimensions

327

(9)

7.4.2 Finite-element solutions in three dimensions

336

(3)

7.4.3 Numerical examples in three dimensions

339

(3)

7.5 Closing remarks

342

(5)

Acknowledgements

344

(1)

References

345

(2)

8 The inverse problem

347

(74)

William L. Rodi

Randall L. Mackie

8.1 Introduction

347

(3)

8.1.1
Chapter plan

349

(1)

8.2 Formulation of the magnetotelluric inverse problem

350

(8)

8.2.1 Parameterization of conductivity models

350

(2)

8.2.2 Magnetotelluric data and forward modeling functions

352

(1)

8.2.3 Statement of the inverse problem

353

(2)

8.2.4 Linear versus nonlinear inverse problems

355

(2)

8.2.5 Well-posed and ill-posed inverse problems

357

(1)

8.3 Least-squares solutions

358

(10)

8.3.1 Existence and uniqueness of least-squares solutions

361

(2)

8.3.2 Stability and model uncertainty

363

(2)

8.3.3 The linearized problem

365

(2)

8.3.4 Uncertainty analysis

367

(1)

8.4 Damped least-squares and smooth models

368

(13)

8.4.1 Stabilizing functional

370

(3)

8.4.2 The nonlinear problem

373

(1)

8.4.3 The linearized problem

373

(2)

8.4.4 Uncertainty analysis

375

(1)

8.4.5 Choosing the regularization parameter

376

(3)

8.4.6 Comparison to Bayesian inference

379

(2)

8.5 Minimization algorithms

381

(9)

8.5.1 Newton's method

381

(1)

8.5.2 Gauss-Newton method

382

(1)

8.5.3 Levenberg-Marquardt method

383

(1)

8.5.4 Model updates by conjugate gradients

384

(3)

8.5.5 Nonlinear conjugate gradients

387

(3)

8.5.6 Subspace methods

390

(1)

8.6 Derivatives of the forward functions

390

(6)

8.6.1 Theoretical sensitivity distribution

391

(2)

8.6.2 Numerical techniques

393

(3)

8.7 Examples

396

(11)

8.7.1 One-dimensional models

396

(7)

8.7.2 Three-dimensional models

403

(4)

8.8 Beyond least squares

407

(14)

8.8.1 Non-Gaussian data errors

409

(1)

8.8.2 Non-quadratic stabilizers

409

(2)

8.8.3 Minimization algorithms

411

(1)

8.8.4 Examples

411

(1)

8.8.5 Sharp boundary inversions

412

(1)

8.8.6 Model bounds

413

(1)

References

414

(7)

9 Instrumentation and field procedures

421

(59)

Ian J. Ferguson

9.1 Overview of magnetotelluric recording

421

(3)

9.1.1 Requirements of magnetotelluric instrumentation

421

(1)

9.1.2 Categories of magnetotelluric recording systems

422

(2)

9.2 Magnetotelluric instrumentation: electrometers

424

(13)

9.2.1 Physical principles

425

(3)

9.2.2 Magnetotelluric electrodes

428

(5)

9.2.3 Other components of magnetotelluric electrometers

433

(2)

9.2.4 Field deployment of electrometers

435

(2)

9.3 Magnetotelluric instrumentation: magnetometers

437

(6)

9.3.1 Induction coil sensors

437

(3)

9.3.2 Fluxgate sensors

440

(1)

9.3.3 Additional types of magnetometer sensors

441

(1)

9.3.4 Other components of magnetometers

442

(1)

9.3.5 Field deployment of magnetometers

442

(1)

9.4 Magnetotelluric data recording

443

(6)

9.4.1 Digitization and dynamic range

443

(1)

9.4.2 Data acquisition control and storage

444

(1)

9.4.3 Sampling rates, frequency windows and recording strategies

444

(2)

9.4.4 Power requirements and batteries

446

(1)

9.4.5 Telemetry and distributed acquisition systems

447

(1)

9.4.6 Magnetotelluric instrument calibration and instrument noise evaluation

448

(1)

9.4.7 Common magnetotelluric site layout errors

449

(1)

9.5 Magnetotelluric field procedure: site selection

449

(15)

9.5.1 Physical requirements of magnetotelluric sites

450

(1)

9.5.2 Electromagnetic noise

450

(10)

9.5.3 Geological noise

460

(3)

9.5.4 Artificial resistivity structures

463

(1)

9.6 Fieldwork

464

(16)

9.6.1 Survey planning and arrangement

464

(2)

9.6.2 Site selection and permitting

466

(1)

9.6.3 Required equipment and supplies

466

(3)

9.6.4 Instrument calibration

469

(1)

9.6.5 Site installation

469

(3)

9.6.6 Site servicing

472

(1)

9.6.7 Site retrieval

473

(1)

References

474

(6)

10 Case histories and geological applications

480

(65)

Ian J. Ferguson

Alan G. Jones

Alan D. Chave

10.1 Introduction

480

(1)

10.2 Magnetotelluric studies of the continental crust

480

(20)

10.2.1 Imaging of the India-Asia collision

481

(4)

10.2.2 Imaging of fluids in an oblique compressional orogen in the Southern Alps, New Zealand

485

(8)

10.2.3 Three-dimensional imaging of the Ossa Morena Zone of the Variscan fold-thrust belt

493

(7)

10.3 Magnetotelluric studies of the continental mantle

500

(13)

10.3.1 Slave Craton

501

(3)

10.3.2 Kaapvaal Craton

504

(9)

10.4 Applied magnetotelluric studies

513

(10)

10.4.1 Geothermal investigation

515

(3)

10.4.2 Uranium exploration

518

(5)

10.5 Marine magnetotelluric studies

523

(13)

10.5.1 Imaging of the East Pacific Rise

525

(4)

10.5.2 Marine petroleum exploration

529

(7)

10.6 Conclusions

536

(9)

References

536

(9)

Index

545

Alan D. Chave is a Senior Scientist at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI). He has also been a Chartered Statistician (UK) since 2003 and has taught a graduate level course in statistics in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology/WHOI Joint Program for twenty years. For over thirty years, he has conducted research utilizing the magnetotelluric method, primarily in the oceans, and has pioneered research into producing modern magnetotelluric processing methods. Dr Chave has also designed instrumentation for optical and chemical measurements in the ocean and has played a leadership role in developing long-term ocean observatories worldwide. He has been an editor of Journal of Geophysical Research and editor-in-chief of Reviews of Geophysics. Alan G. Jones is Senior Professor and Head of Geophysics at the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies and has been using magnetotellurics since the early 1970s. He has undertaken magnetotellurics research in Europe, southern Africa, Canada and China, for problems ranging from the near-surface (groundwater contamination) to mining, geothermal studies and tectonics of the deep mantle (to 1200 km). He has been instrumental in many developments of magnetotellurics, from processing to analysis to modelling/inversion to interpretation. He was awarded the Tuzo Wilson Medal of the Canadian Geophysical Union in 2006, appointed to Academia Europaea in 2009 and made a member of the Royal Irish Academy in 2010.

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E-grāmata: Magnetotelluric Method: Theory and Practice

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