| Chapter 1 Introduction |
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1 | (50) |
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1.1 Space View and Ground Observations |
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1 | (1) |
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1.2 Mediterranean Climatic Environment |
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2 | (8) |
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1.3 Processes at Surfaces |
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10 | (20) |
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1.3.1 Deforestation and Land-use Changes |
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10 | (6) |
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1.3.2 Water Related Problems |
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16 | (3) |
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1.3.3 Fire, Grazing, and Land Degradation |
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19 | (2) |
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1.3.4 Drought, Floods, Frost, and Desertification |
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21 | (4) |
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1.3.5 Coupling Between Sufface and Atmosphere: The Role of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer |
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25 | (5) |
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1.4 Role and Capabilities of Measurements Made From Space |
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30 | (18) |
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1.4.1 Research Programmes |
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30 | (2) |
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1.4.2 Expected Information |
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32 | (1) |
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33 | (2) |
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1.4.4 Observation of Changes in Heterogeneous Landscapes: Spatial and Temporal Scales |
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35 | (1) |
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1.4.5 Land-surface Change Indicators Observable from Space |
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36 | (19) |
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Spectral Characteristics of Vegetation and Soils |
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36 | (4) |
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Responses of Remote Sensing Signals to Changes of Land-surface Properties |
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40 | (8) |
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48 | (3) |
| Chapter 2 Processing and Archiving of Satellite and Ancillary Data |
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51 | (86) |
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51 | (4) |
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2.2 The Remote Sensing Data Base |
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55 | (15) |
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2.2.1 Satellite Instruments |
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55 | (11) |
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The NOAA Observing System |
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55 | (2) |
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57 | (2) |
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59 | (1) |
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59 | (2) |
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61 | (1) |
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62 | (1) |
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62 | (1) |
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63 | (1) |
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64 | (1) |
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65 | (1) |
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66 | (1) |
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2.2.2 Aircraft Instruments |
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66 | (4) |
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The Use of Aircraft for Land-surface Process Studies |
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66 | (1) |
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67 | (1) |
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68 | (1) |
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68 | (1) |
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69 | (1) |
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2.3 Reception, Acquisition and Availability of Satellite Data |
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70 | (4) |
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2.3.1 Reception of AVHRR (HRPT) Data |
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70 | (2) |
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2.3.2 Reception of Meteosat Data |
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72 | (1) |
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2.3.3 Acquisition of Landsat TM Data |
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72 | (1) |
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2.3.4 Acquisition of SPOT Data |
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73 | (1) |
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2.3.5 Acquisition of Nimbus SMMR and NOAA-AVHRR GAC Data |
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73 | (1) |
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2.3.6 Acquisition of ERS 1/2 Data |
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74 | (1) |
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2.4 Calibration of Satellite Data |
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74 | (22) |
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2.4.1 Calibration of the AVHRR Short Wave Channels |
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74 | (14) |
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Detection and Causes of Signal Degradation |
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74 | (1) |
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Effective Signal Degradation of the NOAA-11 AVHRR Shortwave Channels |
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75 | (6) |
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Intercalibrati on of NOAA-14 and NOAA-11 Instruments |
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81 | (2) |
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Comparison with Other Calibration Studies |
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83 | (1) |
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Intercalibration Between NOAA-16 and NOAA-11 Instruments |
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84 | (4) |
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2.4.2 Calibration of AVHRR Thermal Channels |
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88 | (2) |
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2.4.3 Conversion of Meteosat Signals to Absolute Values |
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90 | (2) |
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90 | (2) |
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92 | (1) |
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2.4.4 Conversion of Landsat Data to Absolute Values |
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92 | (1) |
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2.4.5 Conversion of SPOT Data to Absolute Values |
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93 | (2) |
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2.4.6 Calibration of Nimbus 7 SMMR Data and Orbit Stability |
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95 | (1) |
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2.5 Georeferencing and Geographical Registration |
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96 | (4) |
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2.5.1 Georeferencing of AVHRR Data |
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96 | (1) |
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2.5.2 Map Projections and Registration Methods |
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96 | (3) |
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2.5.3 Universal-Transversal-Mercatorprojection (UTM) |
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99 | (1) |
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2.6 Cloud Detection and Elimination |
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100 | (12) |
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2.6.1 Definition of the Cloudless Atmosphere and "Cloud Screening" |
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100 | (1) |
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2.6.2 Previous Cloud Detection Algorithm |
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100 | (1) |
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2.6.3 Cloud Mask Generation Used for the MEDOKADS Product: The Dynamic Threshold Algorithm |
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101 | (2) |
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2.6.4 Improved APOLLO Cloud Analysis |
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103 | (1) |
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2.6.5 Reconstruction of Cloudless Time Series with the Aid of Fourier Components |
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104 | (8) |
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104 | (1) |
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105 | (2) |
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Harmonic Analysis of Numerical Time Series (HANTS) |
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107 | (5) |
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112 | (16) |
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112 | (1) |
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2.7.2 Elevation of Land Surface |
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113 | (1) |
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2.7.3 State of the Atmosphere |
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114 | (14) |
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114 | (2) |
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116 | (6) |
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122 | (1) |
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122 | (4) |
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Comparative Surface Measurements |
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126 | (2) |
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2.8 Satellite Data Archiving |
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128 | (9) |
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2.8.1 Development of Physical Archives Media |
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128 | (2) |
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2.8.2 Examples of Data Archives |
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130 | (1) |
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Raw Data Archive At the Free University of Berlin |
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130 | (1) |
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Preprocessed AVHRR Data Remapped to Polar Stereographic Map Projection |
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130 | (1) |
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2.8.3 The Mediterranean Extended Daily One-km AVHRR |
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Data Set MEDOKADS of the Free University of Berlin |
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131 | (2) |
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2.8.4 Other Satellite Data Archives |
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133 | (6) |
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133 | (1) |
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Archives of Meteosat Data |
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134 | (1) |
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134 | (1) |
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Towards a Distributed On-line Access Archive |
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135 | (2) |
| Chapter 3 Radiative Processes of the Surface - Atmosphere System |
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137 | (54) |
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137 | (2) |
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3.2 Interactions of Electromagnetic Waves with the Surface |
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139 | (29) |
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3.2.1 Elementary Processes |
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139 | (12) |
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139 | (6) |
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Scattering and Reflection From Complex Surface Structures |
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145 | (3) |
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148 | (3) |
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151 | (8) |
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151 | (2) |
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Interaction with Water and Wet Surfaces |
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153 | (1) |
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Interaction With Vegetation Covered Soils |
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154 | (3) |
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157 | (1) |
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Net Radiation at Inclined Surfaces |
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158 | (1) |
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3.2.3 Thermal IR Radiation |
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159 | (2) |
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3.2.4 Microwave Radiation |
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161 | (7) |
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161 | (1) |
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162 | (1) |
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163 | (1) |
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164 | (2) |
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166 | (1) |
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Reflection and Scattering |
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167 | (1) |
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3.3 Atmospheric Radiative Transfer |
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168 | (9) |
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168 | (3) |
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3.3.2 Radiative Transfer in Scattering Atmospheres |
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171 | (2) |
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3.3.3 Radiative Transfer in Absorbing and Emitting Atmospheres |
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173 | (3) |
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3.3.4 The Overlapping Region Around 3 μm |
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176 | (1) |
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3.4 Radiation Codes Suited for Atmospheric Corrections |
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177 | (12) |
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3.4.1 A Landsat-TM scheme |
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177 | (2) |
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3.4.2 A One Parameter Meteosat and NOAA-AVHRR Scheme |
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179 | (1) |
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3.4.3 Split-window Technique (SWT) |
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180 | (2) |
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3.4.4 Multi-angle Methods |
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182 | (1) |
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3.4.5 The HITRAN, MODTRAN, and LOWTRAN Family |
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183 | (2) |
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3.4.6 The "Simulation of the Satellite Signal in the Solar Spectrum" Algorithm |
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185 | (2) |
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3.4.7 Autonomous Atmospheric Compensation (AAC) |
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187 | (1) |
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3.4.8 A Four-stream Atmospheric Correction Procedure for Broadband Albedo |
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188 | (1) |
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3.5 From Basic Theory to Application |
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189 | (2) |
| Chapter 4 Primary Level Products |
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191 | (58) |
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191 | (2) |
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4.2 From Radiance to Reflectance |
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193 | (16) |
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4.2.1 Top of Atmosphere Spectral Reflectance |
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193 | (1) |
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4.2.2 Normalization of TOA-data for Illumination and Observation Geometry |
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194 | (13) |
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194 | (1) |
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Results of Model Calculations |
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195 | (7) |
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Empirical Determination of the BRDF |
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202 | (5) |
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4.2.3 Some Immediate Conclusions |
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207 | (1) |
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4.2.4 From TOA to Surface Reflectance |
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207 | (2) |
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4.3 Intercomparison and Validation of Reflectance Measurements |
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209 | (13) |
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209 | (1) |
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4.3.2 Test for Atmospheric Correction |
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210 | (1) |
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4.3.3 Area Integrated Reflectances of the EFEDA Experimental Areas Derived From Landsat-TM and AVHRR Data |
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211 | (1) |
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4.3.4 Comparative Ground Based Measurements |
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212 | (10) |
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212 | (1) |
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212 | (6) |
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218 | (1) |
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219 | (1) |
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Comparison with Satellite Data |
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219 | (3) |
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4.4 Radiometric Temperatures |
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222 | (12) |
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4.4.1 Infrared TOA Radiometric Temperatures |
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222 | (1) |
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4.4.2 Radiometric Surface Temperatures |
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223 | (1) |
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4.4.3 Sea Surface Temperatures SST |
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224 | (1) |
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4.4.4 Analytic Representation of the Diurnal Temperature Cycle |
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225 | (3) |
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4.4.5 Microwave Brightness Temperatures |
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228 | (4) |
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Atmospheric Effects on Microwave Signals |
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232 | (1) |
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4.4.7 Validation of Radiometric Temperatures |
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232 | (2) |
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Thermal Infrared Radiometric Temperatures |
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232 | (2) |
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Microwave Brightness Temperatures |
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234 | (1) |
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4.5 Active Microwave Products |
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234 | (7) |
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234 | (6) |
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4.5.2 Validation of Active Microwave Data |
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240 | (1) |
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241 | (8) |
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4.6.1 Spectral Shortwave Indices |
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241 | (3) |
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244 | (7) |
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Microwave Polarization Difference Index |
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244 | (1) |
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245 | (4) |
| Chapter 5 Higher Level Variables and Their Validation |
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249 | (120) |
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249 | (2) |
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5.2 Radiative Properties of Land Surfaces I: Emissivity and Thermodynamic Temperature |
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251 | (14) |
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251 | (6) |
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5.2.2 Relation Between Emissivity and NDVI |
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257 | (1) |
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258 | (7) |
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5.3 Radiative Properties of Land Surfaces II: Broad-band Hemispherical Reflectance |
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265 | (11) |
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5.3.1 Narrow-band to Broad-band Conversion |
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265 | (7) |
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272 | (4) |
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276 | (21) |
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276 | (1) |
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5.4.2 Net Shortwave Radiation Flux Density |
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276 | (5) |
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5.4.3 Net Longwave Radiation Flux Density |
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281 | (2) |
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283 | (2) |
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285 | (12) |
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285 | (4) |
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Typical Radiation Fluxes at the Surface |
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289 | (2) |
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Comparison with Satellite Data |
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291 | (4) |
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Radiation Fluxes at High Spatial Resolution |
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295 | (2) |
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297 | (28) |
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297 | (2) |
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5.5.2 Computation Schemes |
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299 | (8) |
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299 | (1) |
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299 | (6) |
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305 | (2) |
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5.5.3 Results and Validation |
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307 | (18) |
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Surface Temperatures as Wetness Indicator |
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307 | (1) |
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308 | (6) |
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Sensible and Latent Heat Fluxes |
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314 | (6) |
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Diurnal Evolution of Fluxes |
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320 | (3) |
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Other SEBAL Products: Resistance to Evaporation |
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323 | (2) |
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5.6 Hydrological Aspects I: Soil Moisture |
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325 | (12) |
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5.6.1 Dual-Frequency Approach |
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325 | (2) |
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325 | (1) |
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326 | (1) |
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5.6.2 Estimating Near Surface Soil Moisture with SAR Systems |
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327 | (14) |
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327 | (1) |
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328 | (3) |
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SAR Estimates of Soil Moisture Content During Efeda-spain and Hapex-sahel |
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331 | (6) |
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337 | (1) |
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5.7 Hydrological Aspects II: Precipitation |
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337 | (4) |
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5.8 Indicators of Vegetation Conditions |
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341 | (22) |
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5.8.1 Photosynthetic Active Radiation, Vegetation Indices and LAI |
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341 | (5) |
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341 | (1) |
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Leaf Area - Vegetation Index Relationship |
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342 | (3) |
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"Red Edge" Shift and Chlorophyll Content |
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345 | (1) |
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5.8.2 Field Radiometry and Data Processing |
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346 | (2) |
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5.8.3 A Case Study on Corn and Barley |
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348 | (6) |
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Experimental Site and Ground Measurements |
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348 | (2) |
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Results of Broad Band Analysis |
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350 | (3) |
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Results of the High Spectral Resolution Analysis |
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353 | (1) |
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354 | (1) |
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5.8.5 Canopy Water Content Derived from Optical Data |
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355 | (18) |
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355 | (3) |
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358 | (5) |
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363 | (6) |
| Chapter 6 From Research to Application |
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369 | (194) |
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369 | (4) |
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6.2 Biosphere Processes: Key Variables, Models and Scales |
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373 | (10) |
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6.2.1 Main Driving Variables of Biosphere Processes |
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373 | (4) |
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373 | (2) |
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375 | (2) |
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6.2.2 Local Processes and Global Models: Spatial Heterogeneity and Scaling |
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377 | (4) |
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6.2.3 From Local to Global Scales |
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381 | (2) |
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6.3 Characterization of Local Vegetation Development |
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383 | (6) |
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6.4 Change Detection Methods |
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389 | (4) |
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6.4.1 Mapping and Monitoring of Land-surface Changes |
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389 | (1) |
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6.4.2 Change Detection Techniques |
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390 | (3) |
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6.5 Scales of Land-surface Variability |
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393 | (14) |
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393 | (10) |
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Mediterranean Topographic Structures |
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393 | (7) |
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400 | (3) |
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6.5.2 Classification and Aggregation |
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403 | (2) |
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405 | (2) |
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6.6 Combination of Satellite Data of Different Provenience |
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407 | (6) |
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6.6.1 Integration of Data with Different Spatial and Temporal Features |
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407 | (1) |
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6.6.2 Merging NOAA-AVHRR and Landsat-TM Vegetation Indices |
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407 | (6) |
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6.7 Multispectral Classification of Land-surface Types |
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413 | (10) |
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413 | (1) |
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6.7.2 Example of a supervised classification |
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413 | (3) |
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6.7.3 Surface Discrimination by Application of the Temperature Independent Spectral Indices TISI |
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416 | (5) |
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416 | (1) |
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Methodology of Parameters Retrieval |
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417 | (1) |
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417 | (4) |
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421 | (1) |
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6.7.4 Vegetation Canopy Characterization by Microwave Transmittance |
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421 | (2) |
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6.8 Decomposition of Pixel Contents |
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423 | (10) |
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6.8.1 Spectral Decomposition |
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423 | (6) |
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423 | (1) |
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424 | (3) |
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427 | (2) |
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6.8.2 Fractional Vegetation Cover Determination by Unmixing Surface Temperature |
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429 | (4) |
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6.9 Seasonal and Interannual Variability as Seen in NOAA-AVHRR Images |
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433 | (20) |
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6.9.1 Thermal Infrared Data Series |
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433 | (4) |
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6.9.2 Short-wave Channels Data Series |
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437 | (16) |
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The Role of Vegetation as Change Indicator |
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437 | (1) |
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Basin-wide Data Representation |
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438 | (6) |
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444 | (9) |
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6.10 Vineyard Change Detection |
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453 | (8) |
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453 | (1) |
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454 | (1) |
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454 | (7) |
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6.11 Estimation of Weather Impact on Vegetation Cover Along the Israeli Transition Zone Using AVHRR Data |
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461 | (8) |
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461 | (1) |
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462 | (1) |
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462 | (1) |
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6.11.4 Results and Discussion |
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463 | (4) |
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467 | (2) |
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6.12 Monitoring of Soil Moisture Fields and Change Detection by Passive Microwave Remote Sensing |
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469 | (8) |
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469 | (1) |
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6.12.2 The Dual-Frequency Approach |
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469 | (2) |
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6.12.3 Available Data and Validation |
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471 | (1) |
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6.12.4 Degradation/Aridification Mapping over the Iberian Peninsula |
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472 | (5) |
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6.13 Integration of Conventional and Remote Sensing Data to Model Transpiration of Forest Mediterranean Ecosystems |
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477 | (16) |
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477 | (1) |
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6.13.2 The Model FOREST - BGC |
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478 | (1) |
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6.13.3 Study Area and Data |
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479 | (1) |
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480 | (2) |
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480 | (1) |
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481 | (1) |
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Surface Data: Leaf Area Index |
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481 | (1) |
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Surface Data: Transpiration |
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481 | (1) |
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482 | (1) |
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482 | (3) |
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482 | (1) |
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Simulation of Meteorological Data for the Forest Test Sites |
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483 | (1) |
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Derivation of LAI Profiles From Different Sources |
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483 | (1) |
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Calibration and Validation of FOREST-BGC |
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484 | (1) |
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485 | (4) |
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Simulated Meteorological Data |
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485 | (1) |
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Measured and Estimated Daily LAI profiles |
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486 | (1) |
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487 | (1) |
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487 | (2) |
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6.13.7 Study Area San Rossore |
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489 | (2) |
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491 | (2) |
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6.14 Use of GAC NDVI Data for Cropland Identification and Yield Forecasting in Mediterranean African Countries |
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493 | (14) |
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493 | (1) |
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494 | (1) |
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494 | (1) |
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495 | (1) |
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495 | (2) |
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495 | (1) |
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496 | (1) |
|
|
|
496 | (1) |
|
6.14.4 Data Processing and Results |
|
|
497 | (8) |
|
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
Correlation Analysis with Global NDVI Data |
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
Correlation Analysis with NDVI Data of Single Land Cover Classes |
|
|
498 | (2) |
|
Correlation Analysis with NDVI Data of Selected Pixels |
|
|
500 | (4) |
|
Evaluation of Produced Maps |
|
|
504 | (1) |
|
Evaluation of the Procedure for Operational Yield Forecasting |
|
|
504 | (1) |
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|
|
505 | (2) |
|
6.15 Drought and Fire Impacts |
|
|
507 | (16) |
|
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
6.15.2 Climatological Characterization and Preliminary Analysis of Burned Area in A Study Pilot Area |
|
|
508 | (2) |
|
6.15.3 Satellite Image Processing |
|
|
510 | (2) |
|
6.15.4 Forest Evolution and its Relationship with Rainfall: Application to Post-fire Evolution |
|
|
512 | (4) |
|
|
|
512 | (1) |
|
Temporal Characteristics of NDVI and its Relationship with Rainfall |
|
|
513 | (3) |
|
6.15.5 Multispectral Analysis of Burned Areas |
|
|
516 | (5) |
|
6.15.6 Discussion and Conclusions |
|
|
521 | (2) |
|
6.16 Assimilation of Initial Soil Moisture Fields with Meteosat and NOAA Data |
|
|
523 | (18) |
|
|
|
523 | (2) |
|
6.16.2 Assessment of the Land Surface Energy Balance Using Satellite Data |
|
|
525 | (3) |
|
6.16.3 Outline of A "Poor Man's" Assimilation Procedure |
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|
528 | (2) |
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|
|
528 | (1) |
|
|
|
529 | (1) |
|
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|
530 | (1) |
|
6.16.4 Selected Case Study and Results |
|
|
530 | (7) |
|
|
|
530 | (2) |
|
Verification of Sebal-results with Ground Based Flux Measurements |
|
|
532 | (1) |
|
Construction of A New Soil Moisture Field |
|
|
533 | (1) |
|
Results of Simulations with the New Initial Soil Moisture Field |
|
|
534 | (3) |
|
6.16.5 Conclusions and Guidelines for Further Development |
|
|
537 | (4) |
|
6.17 Methodology for Validation of Remote Sensing Data Products: The Valencia Anchor Station |
|
|
541 | (18) |
|
|
|
541 | (1) |
|
6.17.2 Definition of Anchor Stations |
|
|
542 | (3) |
|
6.17.3 Spanish Anchor Stations |
|
|
545 | (1) |
|
6.17.4 Scientific Objectives of the Valencia Anchor Station |
|
|
545 | (3) |
|
Definition of A Large Scale Validation Area for Low Spatial Resolution Missions |
|
|
545 | (1) |
|
Definition and Characterisation of A Large Scale Reference Pixel |
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
Scaling Issues: Aggregation and Disaggregation, Time Interpolation and Spatial Averaging |
|
|
547 | (1) |
|
6.17.5 Specifications of the Valencia Anchor Station |
|
|
548 | (5) |
|
6.17.6 Simulation of Top of the Atmosphere Ceres Radiances |
|
|
553 | (3) |
|
6.17.7 Conclusions and Future Activities |
|
|
556 | (3) |
|
6.18 Assessment of Land-surface Changes in Space and Time - General Conclusions |
|
|
559 | (4) |
| Appendices |
|
563 | (152) |
|
Appendix 1 The ECHIVAL Field Experiment in Desertification Threatened Areas EFEDA |
|
|
565 | (34) |
|
A.1.1 The EFEDA Research Concept |
|
|
565 | (1) |
|
A.1.2 The Castilla - La Mancha Experiment |
|
|
566 | (19) |
|
A.1.4 The Matera-Rutigliano Experimental Site |
|
|
585 | (3) |
|
A.1.5 The Tuscan Experimental Sites |
|
|
588 | (3) |
|
A.1.6 Reflectance and Albedo Measurements in Africa |
|
|
591 | (4) |
|
|
|
595 | (4) |
|
Appendix 2 Meteorological Terminology |
|
|
599 | (4) |
|
|
|
603 | (8) |
|
A.3.1 Description of Soils |
|
|
603 | (1) |
|
|
|
603 | (5) |
|
|
|
608 | (3) |
|
Appendix 4 Characteristics of Earth Observation Satellites and Remote Sensing Instruments |
|
|
611 | (20) |
|
A. Satellites and Their Instruments |
|
|
611 | (17) |
|
|
|
628 | (3) |
|
Appendix 5 Useful Formulae and Data |
|
|
631 | (12) |
|
A.5.1 The Spectrum of the Solar and Terrestrial Radiation |
|
|
631 | (1) |
|
|
|
632 | (4) |
|
|
|
636 | (1) |
|
A.5.4 Optical Depth of the Atmosphere |
|
|
637 | (1) |
|
A.5.5 Determination of the Optical Depth From the Ground |
|
|
638 | (1) |
|
A.5.6 Relationship Between UTM and Longitude/Latitude Coordinates |
|
|
639 | (2) |
|
A.5.7 Evaporation Equivalents |
|
|
641 | (1) |
|
A.5.8 Relationship Between Dielectric Constant and Soil Moisture |
|
|
641 | (2) |
|
Appendix 6 Spectral Measurements |
|
|
643 | (38) |
|
|
|
643 | (1) |
|
A.6.2 Atmospheric Infrared Spectra |
|
|
643 | (5) |
|
A.6.3 Spectral Atmospheric Transmission and Optical Depth in the Wavelength Range of Solar Radiation |
|
|
648 | (5) |
|
A.6.4 Angular Distribution of Spectral Longwave Infrared Surface Reflectance |
|
|
653 | (6) |
|
A.6.5 Spectrometric Field Measurements of Surface Reflectance |
|
|
659 | (10) |
|
A.6.6 Spectral Surface Reflection and Albedo |
|
|
669 | (12) |
|
Appendix 7 Scintillometry |
|
|
681 | (4) |
|
Appendix 8 AVHRR Time Series |
|
|
685 | (30) |
|
A.8.1 Presentation of Large Scale Satellite Data Time Series |
|
|
685 | (2) |
|
A.8.2 Temperature Time Series |
|
|
687 | (5) |
|
A.8.3 AVHRR Short-wave Channel Products |
|
|
692 | (23) |
|
|
|
692 | (1) |
|
|
|
693 | (6) |
|
Mean Value and Trend Maps |
|
|
699 | (11) |
|
Striking Deviations From Mean Values During the Period from 1989 to 2004 |
|
|
710 | (1) |
|
|
|
710 | (5) |
| References |
|
715 | (30) |
| Glossary |
|
745 | (4) |
| Index |
|
749 | |
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