Preface |
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xvii | |
Acknowledgments |
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xxi | |
Authors |
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xxiii | |
1 Environmental Impact and History of Modern Transportation |
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1 | (16) |
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1 | (2) |
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2 | (1) |
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2 | (1) |
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2 | (1) |
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2 | (1) |
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3 | (2) |
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5 | (2) |
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7 | (1) |
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1.5 Importance of Different Transportation Development Strategies to Future Oil Supply |
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8 | (3) |
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11 | (1) |
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12 | (2) |
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1.8 History of Fuel Cell Vehicles |
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14 | (1) |
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15 | (2) |
2 Fundamentals of Vehicle Propulsion and Braking |
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17 | (34) |
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2.1 General Description of Vehicle Movement |
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17 | (1) |
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17 | (6) |
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18 | (3) |
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21 | (1) |
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21 | (2) |
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23 | (2) |
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2.4 Tire-Ground Adhesion and Maximum Tractive Effort |
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25 | (2) |
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2.5 Power Train Tractive Effort and Vehicle Speed |
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27 | (2) |
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29 | (5) |
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2.6.1 Maximum Speed of a Vehicle |
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30 | (1) |
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31 | (1) |
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2.6.3 Acceleration Performance |
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31 | (3) |
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2.7 Operating Fuel Economy |
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34 | (4) |
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2.7.1 Fuel Economy Characteristics of IC Engines |
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34 | (1) |
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2.7.2 Computation of Vehicle Fuel Economy |
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35 | (2) |
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2.7.3 Basic Techniques to Improve Vehicle Fuel Economy |
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37 | (1) |
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38 | (11) |
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39 | (2) |
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2.8.2 Braking Distribution on Front and Rear Axles |
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41 | (4) |
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2.8.3 Braking Regulation and Braking Performance Analysis |
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45 | (6) |
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2.8.3.1 Braking Regulation |
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45 | (2) |
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2.8.3.2 Braking Performance Analysis |
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47 | (2) |
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49 | (2) |
3 Internal Combustion Engines |
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51 | (22) |
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3.1 Spark Ignition Engine |
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51 | (17) |
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3.1.1 Basic Structure and Operation Principle with Otto Cycle |
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51 | (2) |
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3.1.2 Operation Parameters |
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53 | (6) |
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53 | (1) |
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3.1.2.2 Indicated Torque and Indicated Mean Effective Pressure |
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53 | (3) |
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3.1.2.3 Brake Mean Effective Pressure (bmep) and Brake Torque |
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56 | (1) |
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3.1.2.4 Emission Measurement |
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57 | (1) |
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3.1.2.5 Engine Operation Characteristics |
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58 | (1) |
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3.1.3 Basic Techniques for Improving Engine Performance, Efficiency, and Emissions |
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59 | (3) |
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59 | (2) |
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3.1.3.2 Gasoline Direct Injection and Lean-Burn Engines |
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61 | (1) |
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3.1.3.3 Multivalve and Variable Valve Timing |
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61 | (1) |
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3.1.3.4 Variable Compression Ratio |
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61 | (1) |
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3.1.3.5 Exhaust Gas Recirculation |
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62 | (1) |
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3.1.3.6 Intelligent Ignition |
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62 | (1) |
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3.1.3.7 New Engine Materials |
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62 | (1) |
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3.1.4 Brief Review of SI Engine Control System |
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62 | (2) |
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3.1.5 Operation Principle with Atkinson Cycle |
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64 | (5) |
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3.1.5.1 Original Engine with Atkinson Cycle |
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64 | (1) |
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3.1.5.2 Modem Engine with Atkinson Cycle |
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65 | (3) |
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3.2 Compression Ignition Engine |
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68 | (1) |
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3.3 Alternative Fuels and Alternative Fuel Engines |
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69 | (3) |
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69 | (12) |
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3.3.1.1 Ethanol and Ethanol Engine |
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69 | (1) |
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3.3.1.2 Compressed Natural Gas and Natural Gas Engine |
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70 | (2) |
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3.3.1.3 Enhanced Hydrogen (H2 Combustion) |
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72 | (1) |
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72 | (1) |
4 Vehicle Transmission |
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73 | (22) |
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4.1 Power Plant Characteristics |
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73 | (3) |
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4.2 Transmission Characteristics |
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76 | (2) |
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4.3 Manual Gear Transmission (MT) |
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78 | (3) |
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4.4 Automatic Transmission |
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81 | (10) |
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4.4.1 Conventional Automatic Transmission |
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82 | (7) |
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4.4.1.1 Torque Converter Operation |
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82 | (4) |
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4.4.1.2 Planetary or Epicyclic Gear Train |
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86 | (2) |
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4.4.1.3 Compound Epicyclic Gear |
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88 | (1) |
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4.4.2 Automated Manual and Dual-Clutch Transmission |
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89 | (2) |
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4.5 Continuously Variable Transmission |
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91 | (1) |
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4.6 Infinitely Variable Transmissions |
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91 | (1) |
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4.7 Dedicated Hybrid Transmission (DHT) |
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92 | (1) |
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93 | (2) |
5 Electric Vehicles |
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95 | (18) |
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5.1 Configurations of Electric Vehicles |
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95 | (3) |
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5.2 Performance of Electric Vehicles |
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98 | (5) |
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5.2.1 Traction Motor Characteristics |
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98 | (1) |
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5.2.2 Tractive Effort and Transmission Requirement |
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99 | (2) |
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5.2.3 Vehicle Performance |
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101 | (2) |
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5.3 Tractive Effort in Normal Driving |
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103 | (2) |
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105 | (5) |
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110 | (3) |
6 Hybrid Electric Vehicles |
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113 | (26) |
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6.1 Concept of Hybrid Electric Drivetrains |
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113 | (3) |
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6.2 Architectures of Hybrid Electric Drivetrains |
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116 | (20) |
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6.2.1 Series Hybrid Electric Drivetrains (Electrical Coupling) |
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117 | (2) |
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6.2.2 Parallel Hybrid Electric Drivetrains (Mechanical Coupling) |
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119 | (22) |
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6.2.2.1 Parallel Hybrid Drivetrain with Torque Coupling |
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120 | (6) |
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6.2.2.2 Parallel Hybrid Drivetrain with Speed Coupling |
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126 | (6) |
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6.2.2.3 Hybrid Drivetrains with Both Torque and Speed Coupling |
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132 | (4) |
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136 | (3) |
7 Electric Propulsion Systems |
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139 | (90) |
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141 | (12) |
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7.1.1 Principle of Operation and Performance |
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141 | (4) |
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7.1.2 Combined Armature Voltage and Field Control |
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145 | (1) |
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7.1.3 Chopper Control of DC Motors |
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146 | (3) |
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7.1.4 Multiquadrant Control of Chopper-Fed DC Motor Drives |
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149 | (4) |
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7.1.4.1 Two-Quadrant Control of Forward Motoring and Regenerative Braking |
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150 | (3) |
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7.1.4.2 Four-Quadrant Operation |
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153 | (1) |
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7.2 Induction Motor Drives |
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153 | (31) |
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7.2.1 Basic Operation Principles of Induction Motors |
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154 | (3) |
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7.2.2 Steady-State Performance |
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157 | (2) |
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7.2.3 Constant Volt/Hertz Control |
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159 | (1) |
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7.2.4 Power Electronic Control |
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160 | (3) |
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7.2.5 Field Orientation Control |
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163 | (14) |
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7.2.5.1 Field Orientation Principles |
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163 | (7) |
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170 | (2) |
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7.2.5.3 Direct Rotor Flux Orientation Scheme |
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172 | (3) |
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7.2.5.4 Indirect Rotor Flux Orientation Scheme |
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175 | (2) |
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7.2.6 Voltage Source Inverter for FOC |
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177 | (7) |
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7.2.6.1 Voltage Control in Voltage Source Inverter |
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179 | (2) |
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7.2.6.2 Current Control in Voltage Source Inverter |
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181 | (3) |
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7.3 Permanent Magnetic BLDC Motor Drives |
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184 | (14) |
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7.3.1 Basic Principles of BLDC Motor Drives |
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185 | (1) |
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7.3.2 BLDC Machine Construction and Classification |
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185 | (4) |
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7.3.3 Properties of PM Materials |
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189 | (1) |
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189 | (1) |
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189 | (1) |
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190 | (1) |
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7.3.4 Performance Analysis and Control of BLDC Machines |
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190 | (4) |
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7.3.4.1 Performance Analysis |
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190 | (3) |
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7.3.4.2 Control of BLDC Motor Drives |
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193 | (1) |
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7.3.5 Extend Speed Technology |
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194 | (1) |
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7.3.6 Sensorless Techniques |
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195 | (3) |
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7.3.6.1 Methods Using Measurables and Math |
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195 | (1) |
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7.3.6.2 Methods Using Observers |
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196 | (1) |
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7.3.6.3 Methods Using Back EMF Sensing |
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196 | (1) |
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7.3.6.4 Unique Sensorless Techniques |
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197 | (1) |
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198 | (25) |
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7.4.1 Basic Magnetic Structure |
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198 | (3) |
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201 | (3) |
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7.4.3 SRM Drive Converter |
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204 | (2) |
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206 | (1) |
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7.4.5 Generating Mode of Operation (Regenerative Braking) |
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207 | (2) |
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209 | (6) |
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7.4.6.1 Phase Flux Linkage-Based Method |
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210 | (1) |
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7.4.6.2 Phase Inductance-Based Method |
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211 | (1) |
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7.4.6.3 Modulated Signal Injection Methods |
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212 | (2) |
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7.4.6.4 Mutually Induced Voltage-Based Method |
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214 | (1) |
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7.4.6.5 Observer-Based Methods |
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214 | (1) |
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7.4.7 Self-Tuning Techniques of SRM Drives |
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215 | (3) |
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7.4.7.1 Self-Tuning with Arithmetic Method |
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215 | (1) |
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7.4.7.2 Self-Tuning Using an ANN |
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216 | (2) |
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7.4.8 Vibration and Acoustic Noise in SRM |
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218 | (2) |
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220 | (11) |
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7.4.9.1 Number of Stator and Rotor Poles |
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220 | (1) |
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7.4.9.2 Stator Outer Diameter |
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221 | (1) |
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7.4.9.3 Rotor Outer Diameter |
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221 | (1) |
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222 | (1) |
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222 | (1) |
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222 | (1) |
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7.4.9.7 Performance Prediction |
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222 | (1) |
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223 | (6) |
8 Design Principle of Series (Electrical Coupling) Hybrid Electric Drivetrain |
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229 | (26) |
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229 | (2) |
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231 | (3) |
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8.2.1 Max. SOC-of-PPS Control Strategy |
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232 | (1) |
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8.2.2 Engine On-Off or Thermostat Control Strategy |
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233 | (1) |
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8.3 Design Principles of a Series (Electrical Coupling) Hybrid Drivetrain |
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234 | (12) |
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8.3.1 Electrical Coupling Device |
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234 | (4) |
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8.3.2 Power Rating Design of Traction Motor |
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238 | (3) |
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8.3.3 Power Rating Design of Engine/Generator |
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241 | (2) |
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243 | (3) |
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8.3.4.1 Power Capacity of PPS |
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245 | (1) |
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8.3.4.2 Energy Capacity of PPS |
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245 | (1) |
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246 | (6) |
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8.4.1 Design of Traction Motor Size |
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246 | (1) |
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8.4.2 Design of Gear Ratio |
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246 | (1) |
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8.4.3 Verification of Acceleration Performance |
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247 | (1) |
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8.4.4 Verification of Gradeability |
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247 | (1) |
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8.4.5 Design of Engine/Generator Size |
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247 | (2) |
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8.4.6 Design of Power Capacity of PPS |
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249 | (1) |
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8.4.7 Design of Energy Capacity of PPS |
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250 | (1) |
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251 | (1) |
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252 | (3) |
9 Parallel (Mechanically Coupled) Hybrid Electric Drivetrain Design |
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255 | (26) |
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9.1 Drivetrain Configuration and Design Objectives |
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255 | (1) |
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256 | (11) |
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9.2.1 Max. SOC-of-PPS Control Strategy |
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257 | (3) |
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9.2.2 Engine On-Off (Thermostat) Control Strategy |
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260 | (1) |
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9.2.3 Constrained Engine On-Off Control Strategy |
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261 | (2) |
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9.2.4 Fuzzy Logic Control Technique |
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263 | (1) |
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9.2.5 Dynamic Programming Technique |
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264 | (3) |
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9.3 Parametric Design of a Drivetrain |
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267 | (10) |
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9.3.1 Engine Power Design |
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267 | (3) |
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9.3.2 Transmission Design |
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270 | (1) |
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9.3.3 Electric Motor Drive Power Design |
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271 | (4) |
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275 | (2) |
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277 | (1) |
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278 | (3) |
10 Design and Control Methodology of Series-Parallel (Torque and Speed Coupling) Hybrid Drivetrain |
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281 | (24) |
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10.1 Drivetrain Configuration |
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281 | (10) |
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10.1.1 Speed-Coupling Analysis |
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281 | (2) |
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10.1.2 Drivetrain Configuration |
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283 | (8) |
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10.2 Drivetrain Control Methodology |
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291 | (7) |
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291 | (1) |
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10.2.2 Engine Speed Control Approach |
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291 | (1) |
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10.2.3 Traction Torque Control Approach |
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292 | (1) |
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10.2.4 Drivetrain Control Strategies |
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293 | (13) |
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10.2.4.1 Engine Speed Control Strategy |
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294 | (2) |
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10.2.4.2 Traction Torque Control Strategy |
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296 | (2) |
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10.2.4.3 Regenerative Braking Control |
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298 | (1) |
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10.3 Drivetrain Parameter Design |
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298 | (1) |
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10.4 Simulation of an Example Vehicle |
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299 | (3) |
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302 | (3) |
11 Design and Control Principles of Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles |
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305 | (18) |
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11.1 Statistics of Daily Driving Distance |
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305 | (1) |
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11.2 Energy Management Strategy |
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306 | (14) |
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11.2.1 AER-Focused Control Strategy |
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307 | (5) |
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11.2.2 Blended Control Strategy |
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312 | (8) |
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11.3 Energy Storage Design |
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320 | (2) |
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322 | (1) |
12 Mild Hybrid Electric Drivetrain Design |
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323 | (20) |
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12.1 Energy Consumed in Braking and Transmission |
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323 | (2) |
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12.2 Parallel Mild Hybrid Electric Drivetrain |
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325 | (5) |
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325 | (1) |
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12.2.2 Operating Modes and Control Strategy |
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325 | (1) |
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326 | (3) |
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329 | (1) |
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12.3 Series-Parallel Mild Hybrid Electric Drivetrain |
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330 | (11) |
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12.3.1 Configuration of Drivetrain with Planetary Gear Unit |
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330 | (6) |
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12.3.2 Operating Modes and Control |
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336 | (3) |
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12.3.2.1 Speed-Coupling Operating Mode |
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336 | (1) |
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12.3.2.2 Torque-Coupling Operating Mode |
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337 | (1) |
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12.3.2.3 Engine-Alone Traction Mode |
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338 | (1) |
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12.3.2.4 Motor-Alone Traction Mode |
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338 | (1) |
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12.3.2.5 Regenerative Braking Mode |
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339 | (1) |
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339 | (1) |
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339 | (1) |
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12.3.4 Drivetrain with Floating-Stator Motor |
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340 | (1) |
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341 | (2) |
13 Peaking Power Sources and Energy Storage |
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343 | (34) |
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13.1 Electrochemical Batteries |
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343 | (13) |
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13.1.1 Electrochemical Reactions |
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345 | (1) |
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13.1.2 Thermodynamic Voltage |
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346 | (1) |
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347 | (2) |
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349 | (2) |
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351 | (1) |
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13.1.6 Battery Technologies |
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351 | (1) |
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13.1.6.1 Lead-Acid Battery |
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352 | (1) |
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13.1.6.2 Nickel-Based Batteries |
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353 | (2) |
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13.1.6.3 Lithium-Based Batteries |
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355 | (1) |
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356 | (7) |
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13.2.1 Features of Ultracapacitors |
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356 | (1) |
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13.2.2 Basic Principles of Ultracapacitors |
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357 | (1) |
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13.2.3 Performance of Ultracapacitors |
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358 | (3) |
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13.2.4 Ultracapacitor Technologies |
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361 | (2) |
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13.3 Ultra-High-Speed Flywheels |
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363 | (6) |
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13.3.1 Operation Principles of Flywheels |
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363 | (2) |
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13.3.2 Power Capacity of Flywheel Systems |
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365 | (2) |
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13.3.3 Flywheel Technologies |
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367 | (2) |
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13.4 Hybridization of Energy Storages |
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369 | (5) |
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13.4.1 Concept of Hybrid Energy Storage |
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369 | (1) |
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13.4.2 Passive and Active Hybrid Energy Storage with Battery and Ultracapacitor |
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370 | (1) |
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13.4.3 Battery and Ultracapacitor Size Design |
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371 | (3) |
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374 | (3) |
14 Fundamentals of Regenerative Braking |
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377 | (20) |
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14.1 Braking Energy Consumed in Urban Driving |
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377 | (1) |
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14.2 Braking Energy versus Vehicle Speed |
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378 | (3) |
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14.3 Braking Energy versus Braking Power |
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381 | (1) |
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14.4 Braking Power versus Vehicle Speed |
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381 | (1) |
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14.5 Braking Energy versus Vehicle Deceleration Rate |
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382 | (1) |
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14.6 Braking Energy on Front and Rear Axles |
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383 | (1) |
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14.7 Brake System of EV, HEV, and FCV |
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384 | (10) |
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14.7.1 Parallel Hybrid Brake System |
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385 | (5) |
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14.7.1.1 Design and Control Principles with Fixed Ratios between Electric and Mechanical Braking Forces |
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386 | (1) |
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14.7.1.2 Design and Control Principles for Maximum Regenerative Braking |
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387 | (3) |
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14.7.2 Fully Controllable Hybrid Brake System |
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390 | (16) |
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14.7.2.1 Control Strategy for Optimal Braking Performance |
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391 | (1) |
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14.7.2.2 Control Strategy for Optimal Energy Recovery |
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392 | (2) |
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394 | (3) |
15 Fuel Cells |
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397 | (24) |
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15.1 Operation Principles of Fuel Cells |
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397 | (3) |
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15.2 Electrode Potential and Current-Voltage Curve |
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400 | (3) |
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15.3 Fuel and Oxidant Consumption |
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403 | (1) |
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15.4 Fuel Cell System Characteristics |
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404 | (2) |
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15.5 Fuel Cell Technologies |
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406 | (6) |
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15.5.1 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells |
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406 | (1) |
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15.5.2 Alkaline Fuel Cells |
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407 | (2) |
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15.5.3 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells |
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409 | (1) |
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15.5.4 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells |
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410 | (1) |
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15.5.5 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells |
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410 | (1) |
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15.5.6 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells |
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411 | (1) |
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412 | (6) |
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412 | (4) |
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15.6.1.1 Compressed Hydrogen |
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412 | (2) |
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15.6.1.2 Cryogenic Liquid Hydrogen |
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414 | (1) |
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414 | (2) |
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15.6.2 Hydrogen Production |
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416 | (2) |
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416 | (1) |
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417 | (1) |
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15.6.2.3 Autothermal Reforming |
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417 | (1) |
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15.6.3 Ammonia as Hydrogen Carrier |
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|
418 | (1) |
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15.7 Non-Hydrogen Fuel Cells |
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|
418 | (1) |
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|
419 | (2) |
16 Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Drivetrain Design |
|
421 | (10) |
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421 | (2) |
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423 | (1) |
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424 | (4) |
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16.3.1 Motor Power Design |
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425 | (1) |
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16.3.2 Power Design of Fuel Cell System |
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425 | (1) |
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16.3.3 Design of Power and Energy Capacity of PPS |
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426 | (5) |
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16.3.3.1 Power Capacity of PPS |
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426 | (1) |
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16.3.3.2 Energy Capacity of PPS |
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426 | (2) |
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428 | (2) |
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430 | (1) |
17 Design of Series Hybrid Drivetrain for Off-Road Vehicles |
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431 | (26) |
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431 | (6) |
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17.1.1 Motion Resistance Caused by Terrain Compaction |
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432 | (2) |
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17.1.2 Motion Resistance Caused by Terrain Bulldozing |
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434 | (1) |
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17.1.3 Internal Resistance of Running Gear |
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435 | (1) |
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17.1.4 Tractive Effort of Terrain |
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436 | (1) |
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437 | (1) |
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17.2 Tracked Series Hybrid Vehicle Drivetrain Architecture |
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437 | (1) |
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17.3 Parametric Design of Drivetrain |
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438 | (9) |
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17.3.1 Traction Motor Power Design |
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439 | (10) |
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17.3.1.1 Vehicle Thrust versus Speed |
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439 | (1) |
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17.3.1.2 Motor Power and Acceleration Performance |
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|
440 | (1) |
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17.3.1.3 Motor Power and Gradeability |
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441 | (2) |
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17.3.1.4 Steering Maneuver of a Tracked Vehicle |
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443 | (4) |
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17.4 Engine/Generator Power Design |
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447 | (2) |
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17.5 Power and Energy Design of Energy Storage |
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449 | (5) |
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17.5.1 Peaking Power for Traction |
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449 | (1) |
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17.5.2 Peaking Power for Nontraction |
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450 | (2) |
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17.5.3 Energy Design of Batteries/Ultracapacitors |
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452 | (1) |
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17.5.4 Combination of Batteries and Ultracapacitors |
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452 | (2) |
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454 | (3) |
18 Design of Full-Size-Engine HEV with Optimal Hybridization Ratio |
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457 | (16) |
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18.1 Design Philosophy of Full-Size-Engine HEV |
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457 | (2) |
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18.2 Optimal Hybridization Ratio |
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459 | (4) |
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18.2.1 Simulation under Highway Driving Conditions |
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|
459 | (4) |
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18.2.2 Optimal Hybridization of Electrical Drive Power |
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|
463 | (1) |
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18.3 10-25 kW Electrical Drive Packages |
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463 | (5) |
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18.3.1 Sensitivity to Engine Peak Power |
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|
464 | (1) |
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18.3.2 Sensitivity to Vehicle Mass |
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|
464 | (1) |
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18.3.3 10-25 kW Electrical Drive Power Window |
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|
464 | (4) |
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18.3.4 Electrical Drive Package for Passenger Cars |
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|
468 | (1) |
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18.4 Comparison with Commercially Available Passenger Cars |
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|
468 | (3) |
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18.4.1 Comparison with 2011 Toyota Corolla |
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|
469 | (1) |
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18.4.2 Comparison with 2011 Toyota Prius Hybrid |
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|
470 | (1) |
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471 | (2) |
19 Powertrain Optimization |
|
473 | (26) |
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19.1 Powertrain Modeling Techniques |
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|
473 | (2) |
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19.1.1 Forward-Facing Vehicle Model |
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|
473 | (1) |
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19.1.2 Backward-Facing Vehicle Model |
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|
474 | (1) |
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19.1.3 Comparison of Forward-Facing and Backward-Facing Models |
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|
475 | (1) |
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19.2 Defining Performance Criteria |
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|
475 | (3) |
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19.2.1 Tank-to-Wheel Emissions |
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|
476 | (1) |
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19.2.2 Well-to-wheel Emissions |
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|
477 | (1) |
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19.3 Powertrain Simulation Methods |
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|
478 | (2) |
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19.4 Modular Powertrain Structure |
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|
480 | (5) |
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19.4.1 Framework of Proposed Toolbox |
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|
480 | (1) |
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19.4.2 Modular Powertrain Structure |
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|
480 | (4) |
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|
484 | (1) |
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19.5 Optimization Problem |
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|
485 | (3) |
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19.5.1 Extending Optimizer to Support Multiple Powertrain Topologies |
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|
487 | (1) |
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19.5.2 Multiobjective Optimization |
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|
487 | (1) |
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19.6 Case Studies: Optimization of Powertrain Topology and Component Sizing |
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|
488 | (9) |
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19.6.1 Case Study 1: Tank-to-Wheel versus Well-to-Wheel CO2 |
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|
489 | (5) |
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19.6.1.1 Lowest Well-to-Wheel CO2 Emissions |
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|
490 | (1) |
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19.6.1.2 Lowest Tank-to-Wheel CO2 Emission |
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|
491 | (1) |
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19.6.1.3 Multiobjective Optimization |
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|
492 | (2) |
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19.6.2 Case Study 2: Powertrain Cost versus Well-to-Wheel CO2 |
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|
494 | (3) |
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|
497 | (2) |
20 User Guide for Multiobjective Optimization Toolbox |
|
499 | (8) |
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|
499 | (1) |
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|
499 | (7) |
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|
499 | (1) |
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|
500 | (1) |
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20.2.3 Fitness Evaluation Algorithm |
|
|
500 | (1) |
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20.2.4 Simulation of Vehicle Configurations |
|
|
500 | (1) |
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20.2.5 Component Models Available |
|
|
500 | (1) |
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20.2.6 Running a Simulation |
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|
501 | (2) |
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20.2.6.1 Definition of Drive Cycle |
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|
501 | (1) |
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20.2.6.2 Selection of Cost Function |
|
|
501 | (1) |
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20.2.6.3 Power Train Type Selection |
|
|
502 | (1) |
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20.2.6.4 Advanced Settings |
|
|
503 | (1) |
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20.2.7 Running the Simulation |
|
|
503 | (2) |
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|
505 | (1) |
|
20.3 Capabilities and Limitations of Software |
|
|
506 | (1) |
Appendix: Technical Overview of Toyota Prius |
|
507 | (18) |
Index |
|
525 | |