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E-grāmata: Nanotechnology and the Environment

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, , , (University of Massachusetts, Lowell, USA), , , (ERM, Boston, Massachusetts, USA),
  • Formāts: 296 pages
  • Izdošanas datums: 30-Jul-2008
  • Izdevniecība: CRC Press Inc
  • Valoda: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9780203881071
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Nanotechnology and the EnvironmentPalielināt
  • Formāts: 296 pages
  • Izdošanas datums: 30-Jul-2008
  • Izdevniecība: CRC Press Inc
  • Valoda: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9780203881071
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Nanomaterials' unique properties offer revolutionary means to optimize a variety of products, including electronics, textiles, paintings and coatings, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products. However, these same properties mean that nanoscale materials can behave differently in the human body and the environment than conventional materials.

Nanotechnology and the Environment provides the fundamental basis needed to assess and understand the life cycle of nanomaterials. It begins with a general explanation of nanomaterials, their properties, and their uses and describes the processes used to manufacture nanoscale materials. Subsequent chapters furnish information on the analysis of nanomaterials in the environment and their fate and transport, including the effects of wastewater treatment on nanomaterials. The book discusses possible risks to human health and the environment and the environment, and describes developing regulations to manage those risks.





Given the potential risks, the book explores the apparent paradox of using nanomaterials in environmental remediation. The final chapter discusses frameworks for evaluating the balance between risk and reward as nanomaterials are manufactured, used and released to the environment.

Recenzijas

...an excellent starting point for the future development of this field ... Written in a clear and lively language ... It provides the right balance between scientific rigor and simplicity and general interests for a broad audience highlighting the key role of science and technology on solving global problems, and the social responsibility that we all share. Consequently, it is an excellent reference guide. -Materials Today, May 2010

Acknowledgments vii
About the Authors ix
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Kathleen Sellers
1.1 Potential Rewards
2
1.2 Possible Risks and Public Concerns
3
1.3 About This Book
8
References
9
Chapter 2 Nanoscale Materials: Definition and Properties 11
Kathleen Sellers
2.1 Definitions
12
2.2 Classification of Nanoscale Materials
13
2.2.1 Origin
13
2.2.2 Composition and Structure
13
2.2.3 Free versus Fixed Nanoparticles
15
2.3 Properties of Nanoscale Materials
16
2.3.1 Overview
16
2.3.1.1 Effect of Increased Surface Area
16
2.3.1.2 Influence of Quantum Effects
16
2.3.2 Critical Physical and Chemical Properties
17
2.4 Types of Nanomaterials and Applications
23
2.4.1 Titanium Dioxide
25
2.4.2 Zero-Valent Iron
25
2.4.3 Silver
26
2.4.4 Carbon Black
27
2.4.5 Carbon Nanotubes
28
2.4.6 Fullerenes
29
2.5 Summary
30
References
31
Chapter 3 Overview of Manufacturing Processes 33
Julie Chen and Kathleen Sellers
3.1 Introduction
33
3.1.1 Manufacturing: Form and Function
33
3.1.2 Looking Forward...Looking Back
34
3.2 A Brief Primer on Manufacturing Processes
35
3.3 Ramifications of Worker Exposure and Environmental Issues for Nanomanufacturing
40
3.3.1 Four "Generations" of Nano-Product Development
40
3.3.2 The Impact of "Engineered" Nanomaterials
42
3.3.3 integrating Nanoparticles into Nanoproducts
43
Summary
47
References
47
Chapter 4 Developing Environmental Regulations Pertinent to Nanotechnology 49
Lynn L. Bergeson
4.1 The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)
51
4.1.1 TSCA Statutory and Regulatory Background
51
4.1.2 EPA OPPT Nanotechnology Initiatives
54
4.1.2.1 Nanoscale Materials Stewardship Program
54
4.1.2.2 Nanotechnology White Paper
61
4.1.2.3 TSCA PMN Decision Logic
63
4.2 The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)
63
4.2.1 FIFRA Statutory and Regulatory Background
63
4.2.2 EPA OPP Nanotechnology Initiatives
64
4.2.2.1 The EPA White Paper
64
4.2.2.2 OPP Nanotechnology Workgroup
65
4.2.2.3 Nanotechnology and Antimicrobials
66
4.3 The Clean Air Act (CAA)
67
4.3.1 CAA Statutory and Regulatory Background
67
4.3.1.1 National Air Quality Standards for Particulates Under CAA Sections 108 and 109
67
4.3.1.2 Hazardous Air Pollutant Standards Under CAA Section 112
69
4.3.1.3 Fuel Additives under CAA Section 211
71
4.4 The Clean Water Act (CWA)
71
4.4.1 CWA Statutory and Regulatory Background
71
4.4.2 The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Program
72
4.4.3 Pretreatment Standards
73
4.5 The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
73
4.5.1 RCRA Statutory and Regulatory Background
73
4.5.2 Listed Hazardous Wastes
74
4.5.3 Characteristic Hazardous Waste
75
4.5.4 Mixture and Derived-From Rules
76
4.5.5 Transporter Requirements
77
4.5.6 Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facility Requirements
78
4.6 The Pollution Prevention Act (PPA)
79
4.7 The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FEDCA)
80
4.7.1 Science Issues
81
4.7.1.1 Issue: Understanding Interactions of Nanoscale Materials with Biological Systems
81
4.7.1.2 Issue: Adequacy of Testing Approaches for Assessing Safety and Quality of Products Containing Nanoscale Materials
82
4.7.2 Regulatory Policy Issues
82
4.7.2.1 Issue: Ability of the FDA to Identify FDA-Regulated Products Containing Nanoscale Materials
83
4.7.2.2 Issue: Scope of the FDA's Authority Regarding Evaluation of Safety and Effectiveness
83
4.7.2.3 Issue: Permissible and Mandatory Labeling
84
4.7.2.4 Issue: The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
85
4.8 The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
85
4.8.1 Exposure Assessment and Characterization
87
4.8.2 Precautionary Measures
87
4.8.3 Occupational Health Surveillance
88
4.9 The Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC)
89
4.10 Emerging State and Local Regulation of Nanomaterials
90
4.10.1 City of Berkeley Ordinance
90
4.10.2 Cambridge, Massachusetts, Ordinance
91
4.11 Private Nanotechnology Stewardship Initiatives
91
4.12 International Developments
92
4.12.1 Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH)
92
4.12.2 The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Initiatives
95
4.12.3 Canadian Initiatives
95
References
96
Chapter 5 Analyses of Nanoparticles in the Environment 99
Marilyn Hoyt
5.1 Analytical Methods
101
5.1.1 Nanoparticle Imaging: Size, Shape, and Chemical Composition
101
5.1.1.1 Electron Microscopy
101
5.1.1.2 Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM)
106
5.1.2 Compositional Analysis
108
5.1.2.1 Single Particle Mass Spectrometer
108
5.1.2.2 Particle-Induced X-Ray Emission (PIXE)
109
5.1.3 Surface Area: Product Characterization and Air Monitoring
109
5.1.3.1 The Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) Method
109
5.1.3.2 Epiphaniometer
109
5.1.3.3 Aerosol Diffusion Charger
110
5.1.4 Size Distribution
110
5.1.4.1 Electrostatic Classifiers
110
5.1.4.2 Real-Time Inertial Impactor: Cascade Impactors
110
5.1.4.3 Electrical Low Pressure Impactor (ELPI)
111
5.1.4.4 Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS)
111
5.2 Workplace Air Monitoring
112
5.2.1 Condensation Particle Counter (CPC)
113
5.2.2 Surface Area: Total Exposure
113
5.3 Sampling and Analysis of Waters and Soils for Nanoparticles
114
5.4 Nanotechnology Measurement Research and Future Directions
115
5.4.1 United States
115
5.4.1.1 NIOSH
115
5.4.1.2 U.S. Government-Sponsored Research
117
5.4.1.3 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
117
5.4.2 European Union
118
5.4.3 Asia-Pacific
118
5.5 Summary
119
References
119
Chapter 6 Environmental Fate and Transport 123
Chris E. Mackay and Kim M. Henry
6.1 Introduction
124
6.2 Nature of Nanomaterials in the Environment
125
6.2.1 Physical Manifestation of Nanomaterials: Particle Size Distribution and Formation of Mobile Suspensions
125
6.2.2 Chemical Forces Acting on Nanomaterials
128
6.2.2.1 Electrostatic or Coulomb Force
130
6.2.2.2 van der Waals Forces
131
6.2.2.3 Solvency Force
132
6.2.3 Implications of Polymorphism
132
6.3 Predicting the Behavior of Nanomaterials in the Environment
133
6.3.1 Predicting Temporal Reaction Rates: Chain Interactions
134
6.3.2 Predicting Temporal Reaction Rates: Estimating Particle Affinities
139
6.3.3 Nanoparticle Affinity and Inter-Particle Force Fields
140
6.3.3.1 Coulomb Energy
140
6.3.3.2 van der Waals Energy
141
6.3.4 Prediction of Probability of Product Formation
143
6.3.5 Summary
144
6.4 Research Results
145
6.4.1 Surface Water and Sediment
146
6.4.2 Groundwater
148
6.5 Conclusions
150
6.6 List of Symbols
151
References
152
Chapter 7 Treatment of Nanoparticles in Wastewater 155
Kim M. Henry and Kathleen Sellers
7.1 Mass Balance Considerations
156
7.1.1 Case Study: SilverCare- Washing Machine
157
7.1.2 Case Study: Socks with Nano Silver
159
7.2 Treatment Processes
160
7.2.1 Sedimentation
160
7.2.2 Coagulation and Flocculation
161
7.2.3 Activated Sludge
162
7.2.4 Sand Filters
164
7.2.5 Membrane Separation
165
7.2.6 Disinfection
165
7.3 Summary
165
References
166
Chapter 8 The Potential Ecological Hazard of Nanomaterials 169
Stephen R. Clough
8.1 Underlying Principles of Ecological Exposure, Effects, and "Risk"
170
8.1.1 Terrestrial vs. Aquatic Ecosystems
170
8.1.2 Risk and Hazard
171
8.1.3 Toxicity
171
8.1.4 Exposure
173
8.2 Factors That Can Affect the Toxicology of Nanomaterials
174
8.2.1 Toxicity of Nanomaterials
174
8.2.2 Exposure to Nanomaterials
177
8.2.2.1 Sources and Routes of Exposure
177
8.2.2.2 Exposure and Dose
178
8.2.3 Summary
179
8.3 Anticipated Hazards To Terrestrial Ecosystems
179
8.4 Anticipated Hazards to Aquatic Ecosystems
180
8.4.1 Methodologies for Evaluating Hazards and their Limitations
188
8.4.2 Discussion of Results
189
8.5 Recommendations for Managing the Risks of Future Nanomaterials and their Production
190
References
190
Chapter 9 Toxicology and Risk Assessment 193
Chris E. Mackay and Jane Hamblen
9.1 Risk Assessment and Nanomaterials
194
9.1.1 Effects of Steric Hindrance
194
9.1.2 Inflammatory and Immune-Based Mechanisms
195
9.1.3 Critical Variables
195
9.2 Exposure and Effects through Ingestion
196
9.2.1 Diffusion
196
9.2.2 Endocytosis
199
9.3 Exposure and Effects through Dermal Absorption
200
9.4 Exposure and Effects through Inhalation
201
9.4.1 Mechanisms for Adsorption and Removal
201
9.4.2 Case Study: Inhalation of Carbon Nanotubes
205
9.4.2.1 Pulmonary Toxicology
205
9.4.2.2 Risk Assessment
207
9.6 Known Toxicity of Nanomaterials
209
9.7 Conclusions
220
9.8 List of Symbols
220
References
221
Chapter 10 Nanoparticle Use in Pollution Control 225
Kathleen Sellers
10.1 Zero-Valent Iron (ZVI)
226
10.1.1 Forms of nZVI
227
10.1.2 Particle Characteristics
228
10.1.3 Effects of Particle Size
229
10.1.4 In Situ Remediation with nZVI
229
10.1.5 Potential Risks
230
10.1.6 Case Studies
233
10.1.6.1 Nease Chemical Site
233
10.1.6.2 Naval Air Engineering Station, New Jersey
235
10.2 Other Technologies
236
References
243
Chapter 11 Balancing the Risks and Rewards 249
Kathleen Sellers
11.1 Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)
249
11.2 Adaptations to Nanotechnology
250
11.2.1 Screening Approach
250
11.2.2 Nano Risk Framework
251
11.2.3 XL Insurance Database Protocol
253
11.3 Summary and Conclusions
257
References
262
Sellers, Kathleen; Mackay, Christopher; Bergeson, Lynn L.; Clough, Stephen R.; Hoyt, Marilyn; Chen, Julie; Henry, Kim; Hamblen, Jane
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