Preface |
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ix | |
Acknowledgments |
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xii | |
Part I: Introduction |
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1 Why Use Natural Enemies? |
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3 | (19) |
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1.1 Historical Perspective on Chemical Pest Control |
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4 | (2) |
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1.2 Why Consider Biological Alternatives for Pest Control? |
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6 | (12) |
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18 | (4) |
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2 Introduction to Biological Control |
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22 | (19) |
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2.1 Defining Biological Control |
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22 | (2) |
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24 | (1) |
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2.3 Diversity in Biological Control |
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25 | (3) |
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2.4 History of Biological Control |
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28 | (5) |
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2.5 Studying Biological Control |
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33 | (8) |
Part II: Strategies for Using Natural Enemies |
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3 Classical Biological Control |
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41 | (25) |
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3.1 Uses of Classical Biological Control |
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45 | (4) |
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3.2 Methods for Practicing and Evaluating Classical Biological Control |
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49 | (6) |
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3.3 Success in Classical Biological Control |
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55 | (9) |
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3.4 Economics of Classical Biological Control |
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64 | (2) |
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4 Augmentation: Inundative and Inoculative Biological Control |
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66 | (19) |
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4.1 Inundative Biological Control |
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66 | (2) |
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4.2 Inoculative Biological Control |
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68 | (3) |
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4.3 Inundative versus Inoculative Strategies |
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71 | (1) |
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4.4 Production of Natural Enemies by Industry |
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72 | (1) |
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73 | (7) |
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4.6 Natural Enemies Commercially Available for Augmentative Releases |
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80 | (5) |
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5 Conservation and Enhancement of Natural Enemies |
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85 | (24) |
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5.1 Biodiversity Leading to Biological Control |
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85 | (2) |
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5.2 Conserving Natural Enemies: Reducing Effects of Pesticides on Natural Enemies |
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87 | (3) |
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5.3 Enhancing Natural Enemy Populations |
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90 | (14) |
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5.4 Conservation Biological Control Today |
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104 | (5) |
Part III: Biological Control of Invertebrate and Vertebrate Pests |
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6 Ecological Basis for Use of Predators, Parasitoids, and Pathogens to Control Pests |
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109 | (28) |
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6.1 Types of Invertebrate Pests |
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110 | (1) |
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6.2 Types of Natural Enemies |
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110 | (1) |
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6.3 Interactions between Natural Enemies and Hosts |
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111 | (4) |
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6.4 Population Regulation |
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115 | (8) |
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6.5 Exploring Factors Impacting Pest Regulation and Its Stability |
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123 | (4) |
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6.6 Microbial Natural Enemies Attacking Invertebrates |
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127 | (2) |
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6.7 Food Webs and Community Ecology |
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129 | (8) |
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137 | (24) |
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137 | (1) |
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7.2 Invertebrate Predators |
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138 | (14) |
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7.3 Predator Choices and Impacts |
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152 | (4) |
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7.4 Use of Invertebrate Predators for Pest Control |
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156 | (5) |
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8 Insect Parasitoids: Attack by Aliens |
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161 | (28) |
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8.1 Taxonomic Diversity in Parasitoids |
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162 | (3) |
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8.2 Diversity in Parasitoid Life Histories |
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165 | (9) |
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8.3 Locating and Accepting a Host |
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174 | (4) |
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8.4 The Battle between Parasitoid and Host |
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178 | (4) |
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8.5 Use of Parasitoids in Biological Control |
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182 | (7) |
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189 | (13) |
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9.1 Entomopathogenic Nematodes (EPNs) |
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190 | (4) |
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194 | (1) |
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9.3 Use of Nematodes in Biological Control |
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195 | (7) |
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10 Bacterial Pathogens of Invertebrates |
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202 | (13) |
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202 | (1) |
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10.2 General Biology of Insect-Pathogenic Bacteria |
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203 | (1) |
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10.3 Use for Pest Control |
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204 | (11) |
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11 Viral Pathogens of Invertebrates and Vertebrates |
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215 | (14) |
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11.1 General Biology of Viruses |
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215 | (1) |
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11.2 Diversity of Viruses Infecting Invertebrates |
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215 | (4) |
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11.3 Use for Pest Control |
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219 | (5) |
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11.4 Vertebrate Viral Pathogens |
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224 | (5) |
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12 Fungal Pathogens of Invertebrates |
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229 | (16) |
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12.1 General Biology of Fungal Pathogens of Invertebrates |
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229 | (2) |
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12.2 Diversity of Fungi and Fungal-Like Protists Infecting Invertebrate Pests |
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231 | (2) |
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12.3 Use of Fungal Pathogens for Pest Control |
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233 | (6) |
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239 | (6) |
Part IV: Biological Control of Weeds |
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13 Biology and Ecology of Herbivores Used for Biological Control of Weeds |
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245 | (18) |
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245 | (1) |
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13.2 Weed Characteristics |
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246 | (1) |
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13.3 Types of Injury to Plants |
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247 | (8) |
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13.4 Regulation of Weed Density by Herbivores |
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255 | (6) |
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13.5 Measuring Impact of Weed Biological Control |
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261 | (2) |
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14 Phytophagous Invertebrates and Vertebrates |
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263 | (15) |
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263 | (4) |
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14.2 Successful Attributes of Invertebrate Herbivores |
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267 | (3) |
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14.3 Strategies for Use of Phytophagous Invertebrates |
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270 | (6) |
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276 | (2) |
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15 Plant Pathogens for Controlling Weeds |
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278 | (13) |
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15.1 Plant Pathogens and Target Weeds for Biological Control |
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278 | (1) |
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15.2 Augmentation Biological Control |
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279 | (4) |
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15.3 Classical Biological Control |
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283 | (8) |
Part V: Biological Control of Plant Pathogens and Plant Parasitic Nematodes |
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16 Biology and Ecology of Microorganisms for Control of Plant Diseases |
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291 | (17) |
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16.1 Types of Plant Pathogens and Their Antagonists |
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291 | (1) |
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16.2 Ecology of Macroorganisms versus Microorganisms |
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292 | (1) |
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16.3 Ecology of Plant Pathogens and Their Antagonists |
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293 | (3) |
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16.4 Studying Plant Pathogens and Biological Control Agents |
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296 | (1) |
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16.5 Modes of Antagonism among Microorganisms |
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297 | (11) |
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17 Microbial Antagonists Combating Plant Pathogens and Plant Parasitic Nematodes |
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308 | (19) |
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308 | (3) |
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17.2 Types of Antagonists |
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311 | (2) |
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17.3 Strategies for Using Antagonists to Control Plant Pathogens |
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313 | (7) |
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17.4 Conservation/Environmental Manipulation |
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320 | (3) |
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17.5 Biological Control of Plant Parasitic Nematodes |
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323 | (4) |
Part VI: Biological Control: Concerns, Changes, and Challenges |
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18 Making Biological Control Safe |
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327 | (32) |
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18.1 What are Nontarget Impacts? |
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327 | (10) |
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18.2 Reasons Nontarget Effects Have Occurred |
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337 | (6) |
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18.3 Direct versus Indirect Effects |
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343 | (1) |
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18.4 Predicting Nontarget Effects |
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344 | (7) |
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18.5 Preventing Nontarget Effects |
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351 | (8) |
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19 Biological Control as Part of Integrated Pest Management |
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359 | (17) |
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19.1 Using Natural Enemies as "Stand Alone" Strategies |
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359 | (1) |
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19.2 Integrated Pest Management |
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359 | (9) |
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19.3 Adding an Ecological Understanding to IPM |
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368 | (2) |
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19.4 Use of Natural Enemies within IPM Systems |
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370 | (6) |
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20 Our Changing World: Moving Forward |
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376 | (13) |
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377 | (8) |
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20.2 Acceptance by the Public, Scientists, and Governments |
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385 | (1) |
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20.3 International Cooperation Is Necessary |
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386 | (3) |
Glossary |
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389 | (13) |
Bibliography |
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402 | (24) |
Index |
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426 | |