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1 An Overview of Optical Wireless Communications |
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1 | (24) |
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2 | (3) |
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1.2 Historical Overview and Current Status |
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5 | (2) |
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1.3 Existing and Envisioned Application Areas |
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7 | (12) |
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1.3.1 Ultra Short Range owe Applications |
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9 | (1) |
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1.3.2 Short Range owe Applications |
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10 | (2) |
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1.3.3 Medium Range OWC Applications |
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12 | (2) |
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1.3.4 Long Range OWC Applications |
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14 | (3) |
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1.3.5 Ultra Long Range OWC Applications |
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17 | (2) |
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19 | (6) |
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19 | (6) |
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2 Optical Propagation in Unguided Media |
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25 | (22) |
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25 | (1) |
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2.2 Degrading Effects of Turbulence |
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26 | (1) |
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2.3 Power Spectra of Turbulence in Free Space Optics (FSO), Slant Satellite and Underwater Links |
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27 | (2) |
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29 | (3) |
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2.5 Extended Huygens--Fresnel Principle |
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32 | (1) |
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2.6 Average Received Intensity |
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33 | (1) |
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2.7 Intensity and Power Scintillation Index |
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33 | (3) |
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36 | (1) |
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2.9 Beam Effects in Turbulent Medium |
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37 | (4) |
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2.10 Mitigation Methods to Reduce Turbulence Effects |
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41 | (1) |
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42 | (1) |
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2.12 Conclusions and Future Directions |
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43 | (4) |
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43 | (4) |
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3 Effects of Adverse Weather on Free Space Optics |
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47 | (22) |
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47 | (2) |
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49 | (1) |
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3.3 Propagation Through Atmospheric Particulates |
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49 | (4) |
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3.3.1 Refractive Index of Water |
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51 | (1) |
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3.3.2 Electromagnetic Computation: Mie Theory |
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51 | (1) |
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3.3.3 Asymptotic Theories |
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52 | (1) |
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3.4 Multiple Scattering Effects |
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53 | (2) |
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55 | (7) |
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55 | (1) |
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56 | (1) |
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3.5.3 Microphysical Characterization |
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57 | (1) |
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3.5.4 Specific Attenuation |
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57 | (5) |
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62 | (2) |
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3.6.1 Microphysical Characterization |
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62 | (1) |
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3.6.2 Specific Attenuation |
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63 | (1) |
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64 | (2) |
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3.7.1 Microphysical Characterization |
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64 | (1) |
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3.7.2 Specific Attenuation |
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65 | (1) |
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3.8 Conclusions and Recommendations |
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66 | (3) |
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66 | (3) |
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4 Experimental Validation of FSO Channel Models |
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69 | (18) |
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69 | (3) |
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72 | (1) |
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4.3 Measurement of Fog Attenuation |
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73 | (3) |
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4.4 Modeling of DSD in Fog and Clouds |
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76 | (4) |
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77 | (2) |
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4.4.2 Analysis of LWC and PSA |
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79 | (1) |
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80 | (2) |
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4.6 Impact of Atmospheric Turbulences |
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82 | (1) |
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83 | (4) |
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84 | (3) |
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5 Channel Characterization and Modeling for LEO-Ground Links |
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87 | (20) |
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87 | (3) |
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5.2 Atmospheric Turbulence |
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90 | (6) |
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91 | (3) |
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94 | (2) |
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96 | (4) |
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96 | (1) |
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97 | (2) |
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99 | (1) |
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5.4 Modeling Approach of Power Scintillation |
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100 | (3) |
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5.5 Conclusions and Future Directions |
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103 | (4) |
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103 | (4) |
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6 Channel Modeling for Visible Light Communications |
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107 | (16) |
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107 | (2) |
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6.2 Channel Modeling Approach |
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109 | (2) |
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6.3 CIR for an Empty Room |
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111 | (5) |
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6.4 Effect of Surface Materials, Objects, and Transmitter/Receiver Specifications on CIR |
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116 | (5) |
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121 | (2) |
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121 | (2) |
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7 Diffraction Effects and Optical Beam Shaping FSO Terminals |
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123 | (22) |
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124 | (1) |
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124 | (1) |
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7.3 Modeling of Diffraction Effects in Terrestrial FSO Links |
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125 | (4) |
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7.4 Simulation, Assessment, and Discussion |
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129 | (2) |
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7.5 Geometrical and Pointing Loss |
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131 | (2) |
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133 | (1) |
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7.7 FG Beams and Transformation Techniques |
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134 | (1) |
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7.8 FG Beam Propagation, Scintillation and Averaging Effect |
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135 | (6) |
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7.9 Conclusions and Future Directions |
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141 | (4) |
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141 | (4) |
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8 Ultraviolet Scattering Communication Channels |
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145 | (26) |
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146 | (1) |
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8.2 Historical and Technological Perspectives |
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147 | (1) |
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8.3 Ultraviolet Channel Propagation Effects |
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148 | (6) |
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8.3.1 Non-Line-of-Sight Channel Geometry |
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148 | (1) |
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8.3.2 Tropospheric Ultraviolet Absorption and Scattering |
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149 | (5) |
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8.3.3 Tropospheric Turbulence and Ultraviolet Scintillation |
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154 | (1) |
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8.4 Ultraviolet Scattering Channel Models |
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154 | (10) |
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8.4.1 Radiative Transfer in Turbid Media |
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156 | (1) |
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8.4.2 Single-Scattering Impulse Response and Path Loss Models |
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157 | (3) |
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8.4.3 Multiple Scattering Numerical and Approximate Models |
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160 | (3) |
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8.4.4 Turbulence Effects on Ultraviolet Propagation |
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163 | (1) |
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8.5 Ultraviolet Experimental Results and System Analysis |
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164 | (3) |
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8.5.1 NLOS-UV Measurements and Model Inter- comparisons |
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164 | (1) |
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8.5.2 NLOS-UV System Performance Analysis |
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165 | (2) |
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8.6 Conclusions and Future Directions |
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167 | (4) |
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167 | (4) |
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9 Information Theoretical Limits of Free-Space Optical Links |
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171 | (38) |
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173 | (4) |
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173 | (2) |
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175 | (1) |
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9.1.3 Objectives and Contributions |
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176 | (1) |
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177 | (1) |
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9.2 System and Channel Models |
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177 | (15) |
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9.2.1 Atmospheric Turbulences |
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177 | (5) |
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182 | (6) |
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9.2.3 Closed-Form Statistical Probability Density Functions (PDF) |
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188 | (3) |
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9.2.4 Important Outcomes and Further Motivations |
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191 | (1) |
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192 | (3) |
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9.3.1 Gamma (G) Atmospheric Turbulence |
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192 | (1) |
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9.3.2 Malaga (M) and Gamma--Gamma (ΓΓ) Atmospheric Turbulences |
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192 | (1) |
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9.3.3 Double Generalized Gamma (DGG) Atmospheric Turbulence |
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193 | (1) |
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9.3.4 Results and Discussion |
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194 | (1) |
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195 | (9) |
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9.4.1 Rician--Lognormal (RLN) Atmospheric Turbulence with Boresight Pointing Errors |
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197 | (4) |
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9.4.2 Gamma--Gamma (ΓΓ) Atmospheric Turbulence with Beckmann Pointing Errors |
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201 | (3) |
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9.5 Conclusions and Future Directions |
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204 | (5) |
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204 | (5) |
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10 Performance Analysis of FSO Communications Under Correlated Fading Conditions |
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209 | (22) |
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210 | (1) |
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10.2 Channel Modeling for FSO Communications |
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210 | (1) |
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10.2.1 Turbulence Modeling for a SISO FSO System |
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210 | (1) |
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10.2.2 Channel Modeling for Space-Diversity FSO Systems |
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211 | (1) |
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10.3 Evaluating Fading Correlation in Space-Diversity FSO Channels |
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211 | (8) |
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10.3.1 Study of Fading Correlation for SIMO Case |
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212 | (6) |
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10.3.2 Fading Correlation in MISO and MIMO Cases |
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218 | (1) |
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10.4 Performance Evaluation Over Correlated ΓΓ Channels via Monte-Carlo Simulations |
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219 | (4) |
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10.4.1 Generation of Correlated ΓΓ RVs |
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220 | (1) |
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10.4.2 Study of BER Performance by Monte-Carlo Simulations |
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221 | (2) |
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10.5 Analytical Performance Evaluation of FSO Over Correlated Channels |
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223 | (4) |
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10.5.1 α--μ Approximation to the Sum of Multiple ΓΓ RVs |
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224 | (1) |
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10.5.2 BER Analysis Based on α--μ Approximation |
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225 | (1) |
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225 | (2) |
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227 | (4) |
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227 | (4) |
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11 MIMO Free-Space Optical Communication |
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231 | (24) |
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231 | (2) |
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233 | (5) |
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11.2.1 Turbulence Statistics |
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236 | (1) |
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11.2.2 FSO Links with Misalignment |
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237 | (1) |
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11.3 MIMO FSO Diversity Techniques |
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238 | (3) |
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238 | (1) |
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11.3.2 Transmit Diversity |
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239 | (2) |
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11.4 Performance of MIMO FSO Systems |
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241 | (7) |
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11.4.1 Average Error Rate |
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242 | (1) |
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11.4.2 Outage Probability |
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243 | (2) |
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245 | (2) |
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11.4.4 Aperture Averaging, Correlation, and Near-Field Effects |
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247 | (1) |
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11.5 Distributed MIMO FSO |
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248 | (2) |
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11.6 Conclusions and Future Directions |
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250 | (5) |
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251 | (4) |
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12 OFDM-Based Visible Light Communications |
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255 | (44) |
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256 | (2) |
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12.2 Unipolar OFDM (U-OFDM) |
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258 | (15) |
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258 | (5) |
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12.2.2 Theoretical Bit Error Rate Analysis |
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263 | (7) |
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12.2.3 Results and Discussion |
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270 | (3) |
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12.3 Enhanced Unipolar Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (U-OFDM) |
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273 | (11) |
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273 | (2) |
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12.3.2 Spectral Efficiency |
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275 | (1) |
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12.3.3 Theoretical Bit Error Rate Analysis |
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276 | (5) |
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12.3.4 Results and Discussion |
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281 | (3) |
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12.4 Superposition Modulation for Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) |
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284 | (12) |
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12.4.1 Generalised Enhanced Unipolar Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (U-OFDM) |
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285 | (3) |
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12.4.2 Enhanced Asymmetrically-Clipped Optical OFDM (ACO-OFDM) |
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288 | (1) |
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12.4.3 Enhanced Pulse-Amplitude-Modulated Discrete Multitone Modulation (PAM-DMT) |
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289 | (5) |
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12.4.4 Results and Discussion |
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294 | (2) |
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12.5 Conclusions and Future Directions |
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296 | (3) |
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297 | (2) |
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13 Block Transmission with Frequency Domain Equalization for VLC |
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299 | (26) |
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299 | (2) |
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13.2 Basic Modeling Aspects |
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301 | (5) |
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13.2.1 Intensity Modulation and Direct Detection |
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301 | (1) |
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13.2.2 NRZ-OOK Reference and Optical Power Penalty |
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302 | (1) |
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13.2.3 Power Penalty of PAM in a Flat AWGN Channel |
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303 | (2) |
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13.2.4 Discrete Time PAM Transmission Model |
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305 | (1) |
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13.3 PAM Block Transmission with Cyclic Prefix |
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306 | (6) |
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13.3.1 An Example Illustrating the Cyclic Convolution |
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306 | (1) |
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13.3.2 A High Level Channel Model in Matrix-Vector Notation |
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307 | (1) |
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13.3.3 Equalizer Coefficients |
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308 | (3) |
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13.3.4 Impact of a Fixed Timing Error |
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311 | (1) |
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13.4 How to Obtain DC-Balance |
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312 | (4) |
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312 | (1) |
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13.4.2 DC-Biased SSC-QAM and Similar Schemes |
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313 | (2) |
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315 | (1) |
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316 | (3) |
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319 | (3) |
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13.6.1 Performance in Gaussian Lowpass Channels |
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319 | (1) |
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13.6.2 Performance in Multipath Channels |
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320 | (2) |
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322 | (3) |
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322 | (3) |
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14 Satellite Downlink Coherent Laser Communications |
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325 | (20) |
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325 | (2) |
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14.2 Adaptive Coherent Receivers |
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327 | (5) |
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14.3 Performance of Coherent Laser Downlinks |
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332 | (5) |
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14.4 Outage Capacity of Laser Downlinks |
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337 | (3) |
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340 | (5) |
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341 | (4) |
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15 Cooperative Visible Light Communications |
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345 | (18) |
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345 | (2) |
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15.2 Indoor Environment with Illumination Constraints |
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347 | (2) |
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15.3 VLC Indoor Channel Model |
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349 | (2) |
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351 | (6) |
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15.4.1 Non-cooperative (Direct) Transmission |
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351 | (1) |
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15.4.2 AF Cooperative Transmission |
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352 | (2) |
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15.4.3 DF Cooperative Transmission |
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354 | (2) |
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15.4.4 Cooperative Transmission with Imperfect CSI |
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356 | (1) |
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357 | (4) |
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15.6 Conclusion and Future Directions |
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361 | (2) |
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361 | (2) |
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16 Coded Orbital Angular Momentum Modulation and Multiplexing Enabling Ultra-High-Speed Free-Space Optical Transmission |
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363 | (24) |
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364 | (1) |
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16.2 OAM Modulation and Multiplexing Principles |
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365 | (3) |
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16.3 Signal Constellation Design for OAM Modulation and Multidimensional Signaling Based on OAM |
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368 | (4) |
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16.4 Experimental Study of Coded OAM in the Presence of Atmospheric Turbulence |
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372 | (6) |
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16.5 Adaptive Coding for FSO Communications and Corresponding FPGA Implementation |
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378 | (4) |
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16.6 Conclusion and Future Work |
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382 | (5) |
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382 | (5) |
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17 Mixed RF/FSO Relaying Systems |
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387 | (22) |
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387 | (3) |
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17.2 System and Channel Model |
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390 | (5) |
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392 | (2) |
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394 | (1) |
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17.3 Outage Probability Analysis |
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395 | (4) |
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17.3.1 Negligible Pointing Errors |
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398 | (1) |
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17.3.2 System with a Single Relay |
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398 | (1) |
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399 | (4) |
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17.5 Conclusions and Future Directions |
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403 | (6) |
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404 | (5) |
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18 Dimming and Modulation for VLC-Enabled Lighting |
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409 | (22) |
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410 | (1) |
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18.2 Digital Modulation with Dimming Concepts |
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411 | (1) |
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412 | (3) |
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18.3.1 Data/Dimming Control Modulator |
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414 | (1) |
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18.4 Circuit Architecture |
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415 | (9) |
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18.4.1 Buck Converter Design |
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416 | (3) |
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18.4.2 Data-Dimming Multiplication Method |
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419 | (1) |
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18.4.3 Measurement Results of Digital Modulation with Dimming |
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420 | (4) |
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424 | (5) |
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18.6 Conclusions and Future Directions |
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429 | (2) |
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429 | (2) |
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19 Diversity for Mitigating Channel Effects |
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431 | (20) |
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432 | (1) |
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19.2 Receiver Diversity in Log-Normal Atmospheric Channels |
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432 | (7) |
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19.2.1 Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC) |
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434 | (2) |
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19.2.2 Equal Gain Combining (EGC) |
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436 | (2) |
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19.2.3 Selection Combining (SelC) |
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438 | (1) |
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19.3 Transmitter Diversity in Log-Normal Atmospheric Channels |
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439 | (1) |
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19.4 Transmitter-Receiver Diversity in a Log-Normal Atmospheric Channel |
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440 | (1) |
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19.5 Results and Discussions of SIM-FSO with Spatial Diversity in a Log-Normal Atmospheric Channel |
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441 | (3) |
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444 | (3) |
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19.7 Outdoor Measurements of Diversity Links |
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447 | (3) |
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450 | (1) |
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450 | (1) |
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20 Multiple Access in Visible Light Communication Networks |
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451 | (12) |
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452 | (1) |
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20.2 Overview of PHY and MAC Layer Design for VLC |
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453 | (2) |
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20.3 IEEE 802.15.7 Channel Access Mechanisms |
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455 | (1) |
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20.4 Markov-Based Random Access Models for 802.15.7 |
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456 | (2) |
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20.5 Performance Evaluation for 802.15.7 MAC |
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458 | (2) |
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20.6 Conclusion and Future Directions |
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460 | (3) |
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460 | (3) |
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21 Link Layer Protocols for Short-Range IR Communications |
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463 | (22) |
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463 | (2) |
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465 | (7) |
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21.2.1 Physical Layer (PHY) |
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465 | (3) |
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21.2.2 Link Access Protocol (IrLAP) |
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468 | (3) |
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21.2.3 Link Management Protocol (IrLMP) |
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471 | (1) |
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21.2.4 Tiny Transport Protocol (TTP) |
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471 | (1) |
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21.2.5 Object Exchange Protocol (OBEX) |
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472 | (1) |
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21.3 IrLAP Functional Model Description |
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472 | (3) |
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21.4 IrLAP MATHEMATICAL MODEL |
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475 | (4) |
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21.5 h-LAP THROUGHPUT ANALYSIS |
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479 | (3) |
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482 | (3) |
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482 | (3) |
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22 On the Resilient Network Design of Free-Space Optical Wireless Network for Cellular Backhauling |
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485 | (26) |
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486 | (2) |
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22.2 A Review of Related Works |
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488 | (1) |
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22.3 Notations and Problem Definitions |
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489 | (2) |
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22.4 Problem Formulation: A Two-Layer Model |
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491 | (5) |
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22.5 A Path Generation-Based Heuristic Method |
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496 | (6) |
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22.5.1 A New Formulation Based on Paths |
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496 | (1) |
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497 | (3) |
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22.5.3 Framework of the Solution Approach |
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500 | (2) |
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22.6 Experimental Results |
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502 | (6) |
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502 | (1) |
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22.6.2 The Study of a Deployment Scenario |
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503 | (2) |
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22.6.3 Algorithm Comparisons |
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505 | (3) |
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22.7 Conclusions and Future Directions |
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508 | (3) |
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508 | (3) |
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23 FSO for High Capacity Optical Metro and Access Networks |
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511 | (16) |
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Giorgio Maria Tosi Beleffi |
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511 | (1) |
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23.2 Terabit/s OWC for Next Generation Convergent Urban Infrastructures |
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512 | (5) |
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23.3 Advanced Modulation Formats and Pulse Shaping |
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517 | (2) |
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23.4 High Data Rate Links with FSO |
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519 | (2) |
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23.5 Multi System Next Generation and Fully Bidirectional Optical Wireless Access |
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521 | (2) |
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523 | (4) |
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|
523 | (4) |
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24 Multiuser Diversity Scheduling: A New Perspective on the Future Development of FSO Communications |
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527 | (20) |
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Konstantinos N. Plataniotis |
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527 | (2) |
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24.2 System Model and Assumptions |
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529 | (3) |
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24.3 Multiuser Diversity in FSO Systems |
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532 | (9) |
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24.3.1 Selective Multiuser Diversity Scheduling |
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534 | (4) |
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24.3.2 Proportional Fair Scheduling |
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538 | (1) |
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24.3.3 Proportional Fair Scheduling with Exponendal Rule |
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539 | (1) |
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540 | (1) |
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24.3.5 SMDS with Earlier Delay First Policy |
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541 | (1) |
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541 | (2) |
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24.5 Conclusions and Future Directions |
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543 | (4) |
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|
543 | (4) |
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25 Optical Camera Communications |
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547 | (22) |
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547 | (2) |
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549 | (5) |
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550 | (2) |
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552 | (2) |
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554 | (2) |
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556 | (6) |
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556 | (1) |
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25.4.2 Undersampled-Based Modulation |
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557 | (3) |
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25.4.3 Rolling Shutter Effect-Based Modulation |
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560 | (1) |
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25.4.4 LCD-Based Modulation |
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561 | (1) |
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562 | (3) |
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25.5.1 Indoor Positioning |
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562 | (2) |
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25.5.2 Vehicle-to-Vehicle and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure Communication |
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564 | (1) |
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25.5.3 Other Applications |
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565 | (1) |
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565 | (4) |
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565 | (4) |
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26 Optical Wireless Body Area Networks for Healthcare Applications |
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569 | (20) |
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569 | (3) |
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26.2 Optical On-Body Channel Modeling |
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572 | (4) |
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26.2.1 System Description |
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573 | (1) |
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26.2.2 Channel Gain Distribution |
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|
574 | (2) |
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26.3 Optical WBAN Performance |
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576 | (5) |
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26.3.1 Optical CDMA-WBAN Error Probability |
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577 | (3) |
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580 | (1) |
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26.4 Typical Optical CDMA-WBAN Scenario Analysis |
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|
581 | (4) |
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26.4.1 Optical WBAN Configuration |
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581 | (2) |
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26.4.2 Channel and Performance Analysis |
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583 | (2) |
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585 | (4) |
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586 | (3) |
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27 Free-Space Quantum Key Distribution |
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589 | (20) |
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589 | (1) |
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27.2 Quantum Key Distribution Protocols |
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590 | (3) |
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590 | (2) |
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592 | (1) |
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27.3 Free-Space as the `Quantum' Channel |
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593 | (5) |
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27.3.1 Transmission Through the Atmosphere |
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593 | (1) |
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27.3.2 Scattering, Absorption, and Weather Dependence |
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594 | (3) |
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27.3.3 Atmospheric Turbulence |
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|
597 | (1) |
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27.4 Design of the Transmitter: Alice |
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598 | (4) |
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27.4.1 Choice of Wavelength and Source for the Transmitter |
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|
599 | (1) |
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27.4.2 Optical Configuration of the Transmitter |
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599 | (3) |
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27.4.3 Temporal Synchronization |
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|
602 | (1) |
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27.5 Design of the Receiver: Bob |
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602 | (3) |
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27.5.1 Optical Setup of the Receiver |
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|
602 | (2) |
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27.5.2 Single-Photon Detection |
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|
604 | (1) |
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27.6 Results of the QKD System |
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|
605 | (4) |
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27.6.1 300-m Link Experiment |
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|
605 | (1) |
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606 | (3) |
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28 VLC-Based Indoor Localization |
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|
609 | (14) |
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|
609 | (1) |
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28.2 Location Determining Methods |
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|
610 | (4) |
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28.2.1 Proximity Detection |
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|
610 | (1) |
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611 | (1) |
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|
612 | (1) |
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28.2.4 Location Patterning/Pattern Recognition |
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|
613 | (1) |
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28.3 Accessing the Shared VLC Channel |
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|
614 | (2) |
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28.3.1 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) |
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|
614 | (1) |
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28.3.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) |
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|
614 | (1) |
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28.3.3 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) |
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|
615 | (1) |
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28.4 Experimental VLC Localization Systems |
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|
616 | (4) |
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28.4.1 First VLC Positioning Systems Based on CoO Method |
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|
617 | (1) |
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28.4.2 CoO Method Extended with RSSI Measurements |
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|
618 | (1) |
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28.4.3 Radiation Model of the LED Light Source |
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|
618 | (1) |
|
28.4.4 VLC Positioning Based on Landmarks |
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|
619 | (1) |
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28.4.5 VLC Positioning Systems with Advanced Transmitters and Receivers |
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|
620 | (1) |
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28.5 Conclusions and Future Directions |
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|
620 | (3) |
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28.5.1 Recent Research on VLC Localization Systems |
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|
620 | (1) |
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28.5.2 Commercialization of VLC Localization Systems |
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|
621 | (1) |
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|
621 | (2) |
Index |
|
623 | |