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E-grāmata: Pavement Engineering: Principles and Practice

Edited by Rajib B. Mallick (University of Texas at El Paso, USA), Edited by Tahar El-Korchi (Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Massachusetts, USA)

Formāts: 818 pages
Izdošanas datums: 30-Dec-2022
Izdevniecība: CRC Press
Valoda: eng
ISBN-13: 9781000812558

Citas grāmatas par šo tēmu:

Highway & traffic engineering

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Formāts: 818 pages
Izdošanas datums: 30-Dec-2022
Izdevniecība: CRC Press
Valoda: eng
ISBN-13: 9781000812558

Citas grāmatas par šo tēmu:

Highway & traffic engineering

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Pavement Engineering: Principles and Practice examines a wide range of topics in asphalt and concrete pavements from soil preparation and structural design to life cycle costing and economic analysis. This updated Fourth Edition covers all concepts and practices of pavement engineering in terms of materials, design, and construction methods for both flexible and rigid pavements and includes the latest developments in recycling, sustainable pavement materials, and resilient infrastructure. New and updated topics include material characterization concepts and tests, pavement management concepts, probabilistic examples of life cycle cost analysis, end-of-life considerations, waste plastic in asphalt, pervious concrete, pavement monitoring instrumentation and data acquisition, and more. The latest updated references, state of the art reviews, and online resources have also been included.

Pavement Engineering: Principles and Practice examines a wide range of topics in asphalt and concrete pavements, from soil preparation and structural design to life cycle costing and economic analysis.

Preface

xxi

Acknowledgements

xxii

Author/Editor Biographies

xxv

List of Contributors

xxvii

Chapter 1 Introduction and Description of Pavements

(16)

1.1 Importance

(1)

1.2 Functions

(1)

1.3 Design and Construction

(1)

1.4 Maintenance and Rehabilitation

(1)

1.5 Important Issues

(1)

1.6 Functional Requirements

(1)

1.7 Types and Uses of Pavements

(1)

1.8 Different Features of Typical Asphalt Pavements

(2)

1.9 Different Features of Typical Concrete Pavements

(5)

1.9.1 Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements

(1)

1.9.2 Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavements

(1)

1.9.3 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements

(1)

1.9.4 Composite Pavements

(1)

1.9.5 Selecting the Type of Pavement

(1)

1.10 Research on Pavements

(2)

References

(2)

Chapter 2 Standards

(6)

2.1 Importance of Standards

(1)

2.2 The American Society of Testing and Materials

(1)

2.3 The American Society of State Highway and Transportation Officials

(1)

2.4 Use of Standards in Materials Selection, Mix Design, and Structural Design

(1)

2.5 Use of Standards in Quality Control in Construction

(1)

2.6 Important Specifications

(3)

References

(1)

Chapter 3 Principles of Mix, Structural Design, and Construction of Asphalt Pavement

(32)

3.1 Overview

(1)

3.2 Traffic and Load Distribution Concept

(2)

3.3 Materials and Layers

(2)

3.3.1 Soils

(1)

3.3.2 Aggregates

(1)

3.3.3 Asphalt

(1)

3.4 Environment

(1)

3.5 Mix Design

(2)

3.6 Structural Design

(3)

3.7 Link Between Mix and Structural Design

(1)

3.8 Theoretical Considerations for Structural Design

(17)

3.8.1 Hooke's Theory of Elasticity

(2)

3.8.2 Boussinesq's Method

(3)

3.8.3 Application, Extension, and Refinement of Boussinesq's Method

(1)

3.8.4 Burmister's Method for Two-Layer Systems

(2)

3.8.5 Odemark's Method of Equivalent Thickness

(2)

3.8.6 Fox and Acum and Fox's Solutions

(5)

3.8.7 Computer Programs

(2)

3.9 Principles of Good Construction

(1)

3.10 Putting Everything Together

(2)

References

(3)

Chapter 4 Principles of Structural Design, Mix Design, and Construction of Concrete Pavements

(42)

4.1 Overview

(1)

4.2 Structural Design

(1)

4.3 Theoretical Considerations

(11)

4.3.1 Stresses Due to Curvature and Bending in Slabs

(2)

4.3.2 Stresses Due to Temperature Curling

(3)

4.3.3 Stresses and Deflections Due to Applied Loading

(1)

4.3.3.1 Corner Slab Loading

(3)

4.3.3.2 Interior Slab Loading

(1)

4.3.3.3 Edge Slab Loading

(1)

4.4 Computer Programs for Rigid Pavements

(2)

4.5 Combined Stresses

(1)

4.6 Stresses Due to Friction

(2)

4.7 Joint Opening

(1)

4.8 Joints

(17)

4.8.1 Transverse Contraction Joints

(1)

4.8.2 Longitudinal Joints

(1)

4.8.3 Construction Joints

(1)

4.8.4 Expansion Joints

(1)

4.8.5 Joint Design

(1)

4.8.6 Joint Spacing for Airfields

(1)

4.8.7 Variable Joint Spacing

(1)

4.8.8 Skewed Joints

(1)

4.8.9 Aggregate Interlock Between Joints

(1)

4.8.10 Design of Dowels

(1)

4.8.11 Dowel Diameter Design

(1)

4.8.11.1 Allowable Bearing Stress

(1)

4.8.11.2 Bearing Stress on One Dowel

(4)

4.8.12 Tiebar Steel Design

(2)

4.8.13 Traffic and Loads

(1)

4.9 Concrete Properties and Mix Design

(5)

4.9.1 Hydration, Strength, and Materials

(1)

4.9.1.1 Construction

(3)

References

(3)

Chapter 5 Traffic

(20)

5.1 Different Types of Highway Traffic

(1)

5.2 Measurement of Traffic Loads

(3)

5.3 Load Equivalency Factor and Equivalent Single-Axle Load

100

(7)

5.3.1 Flexible Pavements

102

(1)

5.3.2 Rigid Pavements

103

(4)

5.4 Alternative Load Equivalent Factor Concept

107

(1)

5.5 Equivalent Single-Wheel Load

107

(4)

5.5.1 Conversion to Equivalent Gear

108

(2)

5.5.2 Conversion to Equivalent Annual Departure

110

(1)

5.6 Tire Pressure

111

(1)

5.7 Speed

112

(2)

5.7.1 Effect of Load and Tire Pressure

113

(1)

5.8 Aircraft Loading, Gear Configuration, and Tire Pressure

114

(2)

References

116

(1)

Chapter 6 Drainage

117

(40)

6.1 Sources and Effects of Water

117

(1)

6.2 Estimating Flow

117

(4)

6.2.1 Return Period

121

(1)

6.2.2 Rainfall Intensity

121

(1)

6.3 Hydroplaning and Surface Drainage System

121

(7)

6.4 Inlets

128

(1)

6.5 Subsurface Drainage System

128

(4)

6.5.1 Groundwater

128

(1)

6.5.2 Water Entering Through Cracks

129

(2)

6.5.3 Artesian Aquifers

131

(1)

6.5.4 Melting Snow

131

(1)

6.6 Design of Subsurface Drainage Structures

132

(11)

6.6.1 Design of Permeable Base

135

(3)

6.6.1.1 Materials for Permeable Base

138

(1)

6.6.2 Design of Separator or Filter Layer

139

(1)

6.6.2.1 Geotextile Separator Layer

139

(1)

6.6.3 Design of Edge Drains

140

(3)

6.7 Consideration of Drainage in Pavement Design

143

(2)

6.8 Pumping in Rigid Pavements

145

(1)

6.9 Use of Software for Design of Drainage Structures

145

(10)

References

155

(2)

Chapter 7 Soil

157

(46)

7.1 Overview

157

(1)

7.2 Soils in Subgrade

157

(1)

7.3 Mass-Volume Relationships

158

(1)

7.4 Grain Size Distribution: Gradation

159

(3)

7.5 Effects of Water

162

(1)

7.6 Soil Classification

163

(8)

7.6.1 AASHTO Method

163

(3)

7.6.2 Unified Soil Classification System (ASTM)

166

(5)

7.7 Density and Optimum Moisture Content

171

(1)

7.8 Hydraulic Conductivity

172

(1)

7.9 Frost Susceptibility

173

(4)

7.10 Swell Potential

177

(1)

7.11 Stiffness and Strength of Soils

178

(8)

7.11.1 California Bearing Ratio Test (AASHTO T 193)

180

(1)

7.11.2 Resilient Modulus Test (AASHTO T 307)

181

(2)

7.11.3 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (ASTM D 6951)

183

(3)

7.11.4 Light Weight Deflectometer

186

(1)

7.12 Subgrade Soil Tests for Rigid Pavements

186

(2)

7.12.1 Plate Load Test

186

(2)

7.13 Subbase and Unstabilized Base

188

(1)

7.14 Soil Stabilization Concepts and Methods: Chemical and Mechanical

189

(11)

7.14.1 Mechanical Stabilization by Densification or Compaction

189

(1)

7.14.1.1 Effect of Compaction on Soil Properties

190

(1)

7.14.1.2 Field Compaction

190

(1)

7.14.1.3 Field Control

190

(1)

7.14.1.4 Measuring Devices

190

(1)

7.14.1.5 Intelligent Soil Compaction System

190

(1)

7.14.2 Use of Geosynthetics

191

(1)

7.14.3 Lime Treatment of Soils

192

(2)

7.14.4 Cement Treatment of Soil

194

(2)

7.14.4.1 Mixture Design Process

196

(2)

7.14.5 Asphalt (Bituminous) Treated Soil

198

(1)

7.14.5.1 Stabilization Mechanism with Asphalt Treatment

198

(1)

7.14.5.2 Mix Design Procedure

199

(1)

7.15 Dust Control

200

(1)

References

201

(2)

Chapter 8 Aggregates for Asphalt and Concrete Mixes

203

(22)

8.1 Definition, Parent Rock, and Types

203

(1)

8.2 Suitability for Application

204

(2)

8.3 Production

206

(1)

8.4 Overview of Desirable Properties

207

(1)

8.4.1 Properties Critical for Structural Layers

207

(1)

8.4.2 Properties Critical for Drainage Layers

207

(1)

8.4.3 Properties Critical for Asphalt Mix Layers

207

(1)

8.4.4 Properties Critical for Cement Concrete Layers

207

(1)

8.5 Gradation for Asphalt Pavements

208

(6)

8.5.1 Aggregate Tests

210

(4)

8.6 Specific Gravities and Absorption

214

(3)

8.7 Cleanliness and Deleterious Materials

217

(1)

8.8 Toughness or Resistance against Abrasion Loss

217

(1)

8.9 Particle Shape and Surface Texture

218

(2)

8.10 Durability/Soundness

220

(1)

8.11 Expansive Characteristics

220

(1)

8.12 Polishing and Frictional Characteristics

220

(1)

8.13 Aggregate Tests Specifically for Concrete

221

(1)

8.13.1 Fineness Modulus (ASTM C 125)

221

(1)

8.13.2 Gradation

221

(1)

8.13.3 Bulk Density and Voids in Aggregates Test

222

(1)

8.14 Automated Aggregate Analysis (AASHTO TP 81 and PP 64)

222

(1)

8.15 Artificial Aggregates

222

(2)

References

224

(1)

Chapter 9 Asphalt and Emulsions

225

(40)

9.1 Asphalt Binder

225

(1)

9.2 Naturally Occurring Asphalts

225

(1)

9.2.1 Lake Asphalt

225

(1)

9.2.2 Rock Asphalt

226

(1)

9.2.3 Gilsonite

226

(1)

9.3 Refined Asphalt from Crude Oil

226

(1)

9.4 Safe Delivery, Storage, and Handling of Asphalts

227

(1)

9.4.1 Causes of Hazards and Precautions

227

(1)

9.4.2 Health Hazards

227

(1)

9.4.3 Precautions and Good Practices

228

(1)

9.5 Asphalt Bi nder Properties

228

(4)

9.5.1 Specific Gravity: ASTM D 70

228

(1)

9.5.2 Cleveland Open Cup Method (Flash Point): ASTM D 92

229

(1)

9.5.3 Solubility Test: ASTM D 2042

229

(1)

9.5.4 Spot Test: AASHTO T 102

229

(1)

9.5.5 Penetration: ASTM D 5

229

(1)

9.5.6 Viscosity Tests

229

(1)

9.5.7 Softening Point (Ring and Ball) Test: ASTM D 36

230

(1)

9.5.8 Fraass Breaking Point Test: BS EN 12593, BS 2000-8

230

(1)

9.5.9 Ductility: ASTM D 113

230

(1)

9.5.10 Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT): ASTM D 1754

231

(1)

9.5.11 Rolling Thin Film Oven Test (RTFOT): ASTM D 2872, BS EN 12591, AASHTO T 240

231

(1)

9.6 Asphalt Binder Properties and Pavement Distress and Performance

232

(2)

9.6.1 Aging of Asphalt Binder

232

(2)

9.6.1.1 Hardening

234

(1)

9.7 Stiffness

234

(5)

9.7.1 Viscosity for Stiffness

238

(1)

9.8 Viscoelastic Nature of Asphalt and Direct Measurement of Stiffness

239

(1)

9.9 Tensile Behavior

240

(1)

9.10 Superpave (Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements)

241

(13)

9.10.1 High-Temperature Viscosity

242

(1)

9.10.2 Complex Modulus and Phase Angle

242

(2)

9.10.3 Aging Tests

244

(1)

9.10.4 DSR Tests Conducted on Aged Asphalt

244

(1)

9.10.5 Low-Temperature Stiffness (ASTM D 6648, AASHTO T 313)

245

(1)

9.10.6 Direct Tension Test (ASTM D 6723, AASHTO T 314)

246

(1)

9.10.7 Superpave Requirements

246

(3)

9.10.7.1 Explanation

249

(3)

9.10.8 Multiple Stress Creep Recovery Test (AASHTO T 350, Specification, AASHTO M 332)

252

(2)

9.11 Recent Developments

254

(1)

9.12 Recovery of Asphalt Binder from Asphalt Mix

255

(1)

9.13 Adhesion Properties

256

(1)

9.14 Asphalt Emulsions

257

(5)

9.14.1 Properties

257

(1)

9.14.2 Tests for Asphalt Emulsions

258

(2)

9.14.3 Classification of Emulsions and Selection

260

(2)

References

262

(3)

Chapter 10 Distress and Performance

265

(14)

10.1 Distresses in Asphalt Pavements

265

(4)

10.1.1 Bleeding

265

(1)

10.1.2 Block Cracking

265

(1)

10.1.3 Corrugations

265

(1)

10.1.4 Delamination

265

(2)

10.1.5 Edge Cracks

267

(1)

10.1.6 Fatigue Cracks and Edge Fatigue Cracks

267

(1)

10.1.7 Longitudinal Joint Cracks

267

(1)

10.1.8 Polished Aggregate

267

(1)

10.1.9 Potholes

267

(1)

10.1.10 Raveling

268

(1)

10.1.11 Reflective Cracking

268

(1)

10.1.12 Rutting

268

(1)

10.1.13 Slippage Crack

268

(1)

10.1.14 Thermal Cracks

268

(1)

10.2 Distresses in Concrete Pavements

269

(3)

10.2.1 Corner Breaks

269

(1)

10.2.2 Durability Cracking (or "D" Cracking)

270

(1)

10.2.3 Longitudinal Cracking

270

(1)

10.2.4 Transverse Cracking

270

(1)

10.2.5 Spalling of Transverse Joints

270

(1)

10.2.6 Map Cracking and Scaling

270

(1)

10.2.7 Polished Aggregate

271

(1)

10.2.8 Popouts

271

(1)

10.2.9 Blowups

271

(1)

10.2.10 Faulting of Transverse Joints and Cracks

271

(1)

10.2.11 Lane-to-Shoulder Drop-Off

271

(1)

10.2.12 Lane-to-Shoulder Separation

271

(1)

10.2.13 Patch/Patch Deterioration

271

(1)

10.2.14 Water Bleeding and Pumping

272

(1)

10.2.15 Punchouts

272

(1)

10.2.16 Joint Seal Damage

272

(1)

10.3 Consideration of Performance

272

(2)

10.4 Damage

274

(1)

10.5 Forensic Investigation for Determination of Type and Cause of Distress

275

(3)

10.5.1 Forensic Investigation Plan

275

(1)

10.5.2 Nondestructive and Destructive Tests

275

(3)

References

278

(1)

Chapter 11 Consideration of Major Distress Mechanisms and Material Characterization for Asphalt Pavements

279

(66)

11.1 Fatigue Cracking

279

(24)

11.1.1 Material Characterization Tests

282

(1)

11.1.1.1 Indirect Tensile Strength: Test Method

283

(1)

11.1.1.2 Resilient Modulus

283

(1)

11.1.1.3 Dynamic Modulus (AASHTO TP 62-03)

283

(12)

11.1.1.4 Texas Overlay Tester (Texas OT)

295

(3)

11.1.2 Models

298

(2)

11.1.2.1 Simplified Viscoelastic Continuum Damage (S-VECD) Model

300

(1)

11.1.3 Definition of Failure

300

(1)

11.1.4 Use of Models

301

(1)

11.1.5 Relationship Between Mix Design and Fatigue Performance

302

(1)

11.1.6 Relationship Between Pavement Structure and Fatigue Performance

302

(1)

11.1.6.1 Steps for Avoiding Premature Fatigue Cracking

302

(1)

11.2 Thermal Cracking

303

(15)

11.2.1 Material Characterization

304

(1)

11.2.2 Models

305

(1)

11.2.2.1 Environmental Conditions

305

(1)

11.2.2.2 Regression Equation Approach (Hajek and Haas, 1972)

306

(1)

11.2.2.3 Fracture Mechanics Approach: SHRP Thermal Cracking Model

307

(2)

11.2.2.4 Models for Cracking

309

(1)

11.2.3 Cracking and Properties of Asphalts and Aggregates

310

(8)

11.3 Rutting or Permanent Deformation

318

(16)

11.3.1 Material Characterization

318

(1)

11.3.1.1 Creep Testing

319

(2)

11.3.1.2 Triaxial Test

321

(1)

11.3.2 Models

322

(1)

11.3.2.1 Consideration of Rutting in Asphalt Mix Only

323

(1)

11.3.2.2 Statistical Predictive Models on the Basis of Different Properties (Baladi, 1989)

324

(1)

11.3.2.3 Layered Vertical Permanent Strain Approach

324

(2)

11.3.2.4 Permanent Strain Rate Method

326

(1)

11.3.2.5 Plastic-Elastic Vertical Strain Ratio Method

326

(1)

11.3.2.6 Rutting Rate Method (Majidzadeh, 1981)

327

(1)

11.3.2.7 Alternate Model Relating Tertiary Flow Characteristics to Mix Properties

327

(3)

11.3.2.8 Models for Unbound Materials

330

(1)

11.3.2.9 Ayres Combined Model for Subgrade and Granular Materials (NCHRP, 2004)

331

(1)

11.3.2.10 Equivalent Temperature Concept

332

(1)

11.3.2.11 El-Basyouny and Witczak Model (NCHRP, 2004)

333

(1)

11.3.3 Definition of Failure

334

(1)

11.4 Smooth ness Consideration

334

(5)

11.5 Top-Down Cracking

338

11.5.1 Pavement Surface Characteristics

339

(1)

References

340

(5)

Chapter 12 Mix and Structural Design of Asphalt Mix Layers

345

(60)

12.1 Physical and Volumetric Properties of Asphalt Mix

345

(5)

12.1.1 Bulk-Specific Gravity of Compacted Asphalt Mix (Gmb)

348

(1)

12.1.2 Theoretical Maximum Density or Maximum Specific Gravity of the Mix (Gmm)/Rice Specific Gravity

348

(2)

12.2 Mix Design Methods

350

(17)

12.2.1 Hveem Method (ASTM D 1560, D 1561)

350

(6)

12.2.2 Marshall Method

356

(4)

12.2.3 Superpave Method

360

(4)

12.2.3.1 Mix Design Systems of South Africa, France, the United Kingdom, and Australia

364

(3)

12.3 Balanced Mix Design (BMD)

367

(3)

12.4 Structural Design

370

(30)

12.4.1 Empirical Methods

370

(1)

12.4.1.1 California Bearing Ratio Method

370

(1)

12.4.1.2 American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Method

370

(4)

12.4.2 Mechanistic-Empirical Methods

374

(4)

12.4.2.1 Design of Low Volume Roads

378

(1)

12.4.2.2 Example of Structural Design Procedure Using Mechanistic Principles

379

(2)

12.4.2.3 NCHRP 1-37A Mechanistic-Empirical Design Guide

381

(19)

12.5 Thickness of Hot Mix Asphalt Layers to Avoid Excessive Permeability

400

(2)

References

402

(3)

Chapter 13 Construction of Asphalt Pavements

405

(30)

13.1 Overview

405

(2)

13.1.1 Production

405

(2)

13.1.2 Transportation and Laydown

407

(1)

13.2 Description and Requirements of Components in Hot Mix Asphalt-Producing Plants

407

(7)

13.2.1 Aggregate Stockpiles

407

(1)

13.2.2 Cold Feed Bins

408

(1)

13.2.3 Drum Mix Plant

409

(1)

13.2.4 Hot Elevator and Bins

409

(1)

13.2.5 Pugmill

410

(1)

13.2.6 Hauling and Storage

411

(1)

13.2.7 Drum Plant

411

(2)

13.2.8 Dust Collection from HMA Plants

413

(1)

13.2.9 Asphalt Storage Tanks

413

(1)

13.3 Equipment Used for Transportation, Laydown, and Compaction

414

(4)

13.3.1 Trucks

414

(2)

13.3.2 Pavers

416

(1)

13.3.3 Rollers

417

(1)

13.4 Important Factors

418

(2)

13.5 Construction of Granular Layers

420

(1)

13.5.1 Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) and Recycled Concrete Material (RCM) in Granular or Stabilized Base Course

420

(1)

13.5.2 Steps in the Construction of an Asphalt Pavement

420

(1)

13.6 Specifications

421

(7)

13.6.1 Variability of Materials

422

(5)

13.6.2 Use of Quality Control Charts

427

(1)

13.7 Preparation of Subgrade and Construction of Base and Subbase Layers

428

(1)

13.8 Quality Control and Quality Assurance

428

(2)

13.9 Construction of Longitudinal Joints

430

(4)

13.9.1 Techniques of Constructing Good Longitudinal Joints

431

(1)

13.9.1.1 Combination of Notched Wedge Joint, Rubberized Asphalt Tack Coat, and Minimum Joint Density Requirements

431

(1)

13.9.1.2 Rubberized Asphalt Tack Coat and Minimum Joint Density Requirements

432

(1)

13.9.1.3 Notched Wedge Joint and Minimum Joint Density Requirements

432

(1)

13.9.1.4 Cutting Wheel and Minimum Joint Density Requirements

432

(1)

13.9.1.5 Infrared Joint Heating and Minimum Joint Density Requirements

433

(1)

References

434

(1)

Chapter 14 Concrete Fundamentals for Rigid Pavements

435

(8)

14.1 Concrete

435

(1)

14.2 Aggregates

436

(1)

14.3 Cement

436

(3)

14.3.1 Types of Portland Cement

438

(1)

14.4 Water

439

(1)

14.5 Hydration

439

(1)

14.6 Steel in Concrete

440

(2)

References

442

(1)

Chapter 15 Distress Models and Material Characterization for Concrete Pavements

443

(24)

15.1 Distresses and Models

443

(18)

15.1.1 Cracking

443

(1)

15.1.1.1 Fatigue Cracking in JPCP

443

(2)

15.1.1.2 Zero-Maintenance Design Fatigue Model

445

(1)

15.1.1.3 Calibrated Mechanistic Design Fatigue Model

445

(1)

15.1.1.4 ERES-COE Fatigue Model

446

(1)

15.1.1.5 PCA Fatigue Model

446

(1)

15.1.1.6 ARE Fatigue Model

446

(1)

15.1.1.7 Vesic Distress Model

446

(1)

15.1.1.8 RISC Distress Function

446

(1)

15.1.1.9 Transverse Cracking

447

(1)

15.1.2 Transverse Joint Faulting in Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements

448

(1)

15.1.2.1 Models to Predict Faulting

449

(1)

15.1.2.2 Slab Corner Deflections

449

(5)

15.1.3 Erosion Characterization of Base/Subbase

454

(1)

15.1.4 Characterizing Free Water Within a Pavement Structure

454

(1)

15.1.5 PRS M-E Transverse Joint-Faulting Prediction Model

455

(1)

15.1.6 Punchouts in Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements

456

(1)

15.1.6.1 Development of CRCP Punchout Models

457

(1)

15.1.6.2 Punchout Distress Model

458

(1)

15.1.7 Smoothness Considerations

458

(3)

15.2 Tests for Concrete

461

(3)

15.2.1 Flexural Strength Tests

461

(1)

15.2.2 Compressive Strength

462

(1)

15.2.3 Tensile Strength

462

(1)

15.2.4 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Test

463

(1)

15.2.5 Fatigue Testing for PCC

464

(1)

15.3 Composite Pavements

464

(1)

15.4 Distress Mechanism for Design of Composite Pavements

465

(1)

References

465

(2)

Chapter 16 Mix Design and Structural Design for Concrete Pavements

467

(58)

16.1 Mix Design

467

(16)

16.1.1 Concrete Strength

467

(1)

16.1.2 Water-to-Cementitious Materials Ratio

468

(1)

16.1.3 Selection of the Water-to-Cementitious Materials Ratio

469

(3)

16.1.4 Aggregates

472

(1)

16.1.5 Air Content in Concrete

473

(1)

16.1.6 Slump

473

(1)

16.1.7 Water Content

473

(3)

16.1.8 Cementing Materials Content and Type

476

(1)

16.1.9 Admixtures

477

(1)

16.1.10 Example of Mix Design

478

(5)

16.2 Structural Design

483

(38)

16.2.1 AASHTO Method (AASHTO, 1993)

483

(1)

16.2.2 Design Input Parameters

484

(1)

16.2.2.1 Reliability

484

(1)

16.2.2.2 Serviceability

484

(1)

16.2.2.3 Drainage Coefficient (Cd)

484

(1)

16.2.2.4 Load Transfer Coefficient (J)

484

(6)

16.2.3 Rigid Foundation at Shallow Depth

490

(1)

16.2.4 Effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction

491

(3)

16.2.4.1 Software Solutions

494

(1)

16.2.4.2 AASHTO 1998 Supplement to Design Guide

494

(6)

16.2.4.3 MEPDG Design Guide

500

(6)

16.2.4.4 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements

506

(4)

16.2.4.5 CRCP Design Criteria

510

(1)

16.2.4.6 Structural Performance

511

(1)

16.2.4.7 Functional Performance

512

(1)

16.2.4.8 Reinforcement for CRCP

512

(1)

16.2.4.9 Design Methods for CRCP

513

(1)

16.2.4.10 AASHTO MEPDG

513

(1)

16.2.4.11 AASHTO-86/93 Design Procedure

514

(1)

16.2.4.12 Reinforcement Design

515

(1)

16.2.4.13 Design Variables for Longitudinal Reinforcement: AASHTO Method

515

(2)

16.2.4.14 Limiting Criteria

517

(4)

16.2.4.15 Longitudinal Reinforcement Design Procedure

521

(1)

16.3 Composite Pavements Structural Design

521

(3)

References

524

(1)

Chapter 17 Construction of Concrete Pavements

525

(34)

17.1 Overview

525

(1)

17.2 Concrete Production

525

(2)

17.3 Preparation of Subgrade and Base

527

(1)

17.4 Presetting Reinforcements such as Dowel Bars, Tiebars, and Continuous Reinforcement

527

(4)

17.4.1 Dowel Bars

527

(2)

17.4.2 Tiebars

529

(1)

17.4.2.1 Reinforcing Steel (CRCP)

530

(1)

17.5 PCC Slab Construction

531

(4)

17.5.1 Slipform Paving

531

(1)

17.5.2 Stringlines for Slipform Paver

532

(1)

17.5.3 Fixed Form Paving

533

(1)

17.5.4 Concrete Placement

533

(1)

17.5.5 Consolidation

534

(1)

17.5.6 Screeding

535

(1)

17.6 Finishing

535

(2)

17.6.1 Bullfloating

536

(1)

17.6.2 Texturing

536

(1)

17.6.3 Protection of Pavement Surface from Rain

536

(1)

17.6.4 Construction Headers

537

(1)

17.7 Curing

537

(3)

17.7.1 Evaporation Rate

539

(1)

17.8 Paving in Hot and Cold Weather Conditions

540

(2)

17.8.1 Edge Slump

541

(1)

17.8.2 Smoothness

541

(1)

17.9 Jointing

542

(1)

17.10 HIPERPAV Software

543

(4)

17.11 Joint Sealing

547

(10)

17.11.1 Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QC/QA)

548

(1)

17.11.2 Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC)

549

(1)

17.11.3 Blaine Fineness

549

(1)

17.11.4 Gradation

550

(1)

17.11.5 Penetration Resistance

550

(1)

17.11.6 Cement Materials Temperature Profile (the "Coffee Cup Test")

550

(1)

17.11.7 Water-Cement Ratio (Microwave Oven Test)

550

(1)

17.11.8 Concrete and Subgrade Temperature and Environmental Conditions

550

(1)

17.11.9 Concrete Strength (Early Age)

550

(1)

17.11.10 Air Void Analyzer

550

(1)

17.11.11 Maturity Test

551

(1)

17.11.11.1 Consistency

552

(1)

17.11.11.2 Air Content

553

(1)

17.11.11.3 Density and Yield

553

(1)

17.11.11.4 Sampling Fresh Concrete

554

(3)

References

557

(2)

Chapter 18 Precast Concrete Pavements

559

(28)

18.1 Precast Pavement Applications

560

(1)

18.2 Precast Concrete Pavement Concepts

561

(6)

18.2.1 Intermittent Repairs of Concrete Pavements

561

(2)

18.2.2 Continuous Application

563

(1)

18.2.2.1 Jointed Precast Concrete Pavements

564

(1)

18.2.2.2 Precast Prestressed Concrete Pavements

564

(3)

18.3 Incrementally Connected Precast Concrete Pavements

567

(1)

18.4 PCP Load Transfer System

567

(1)

18.5 Transverse Joint Spacing Requirements

568

(9)

18.5.1 Load Transfer Provisions

568

(3)

18.5.1.1 Design of Load Transfer System

571

(1)

18.5.1.2 Dowel Bar Slot Patching Material

571

(1)

18.5.2 PCP Support System

572

(1)

18.5.2.1 Bedding for Repair Applications

572

(1)

18.5.2.2 Bedding for Continuous Application

572

(3)

18.5.3 PCP Panel Fabrication

575

(2)

18.6 Performance of Installed Precast Concrete Pavements

577

(8)

18.6.1 Deflection Testi ng of JPrCP

578

(1)

18.6.1.1 The 1-675 in Michigan (Intermittent Repair Project)

579

(2)

18.6.1.2 The 1-15 in Ontario, California (Continuous Jointed PCP--Fort Miller Super-Slab JPrCP System)

581

(1)

18.6.1.3 The 1-57 in Missouri (PPCP Projects Based on the Texas PPCP System)

582

(2)

18.6.2 Summary of Findings from Field Testing

584

(1)

18.7 Concrete Requirements

585

(1)

References

586

(1)

Chapter 19 Pavement Surface Characteristics

587

(18)

19.1 Overview

587

(8)

19.1.1 Pavement Surface Textures

587

(1)

19.1.1.1 Microtexture

588

(1)

19.1.1.2 Macrotexture

588

(1)

19.1.1.3 The Next Generation Concrete Surface (NGCS) Texture

589

(1)

19.1.2 Pavement Surface Friction

590

(1)

19.1.2.1 Friction Number

590

(1)

19.1.2.2 International Friction Index

591

(1)

19.1.3 Pavement Surface-Tire Noise

592

(1)

19.1.3.1 Measurement Techniques of Pavement-Tire Noise

592

(1)

19.1.4 Ride Quality

592

(3)

19.2 Pavement Surface Characteristics Design

595

(5)

19.2.1 Aggregate Testing and Characterization

595

(1)

19.2.1.1 Aggregate Composition/Structure and Mineral Hardness

595

(1)

19.2.1.2 Aggregate Angularity, Shape, and Texture

595

(1)

19.2.1.3 Abrasion/Wear Resistance

595

(1)

19.2.1.4 Polish Resistance

595

(1)

19.2.1.5 Soundness

596

(1)

19.2.1.6 Aggregate Test Criteria

596

(1)

19.2.2 Surface Mix Types and Texturing Techniques

597

(1)

19.2.3 Friction Design Categories

597

(1)

19.2.4 Project-Level Design Guidelines

597

(3)

19.3 Pavement Surface Characteristics Management

600

(1)

References

601

(4)

Chapter 20 Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Pavements: Pavement Management Systems

605

(42)

20.1 Overview

605

(1)

20.2 Steps in PMS

605

(1)

20.3 Different PMS Approaches

606

(3)

20.3.1 Criteria for Making Decisions

608

(1)

20.4 Distress Survey

609

(6)

20.5 Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Asphalt Pavements

615

(26)

20.5.1 Maintenance

615

(1)

20.5.1.1 Primary Corrective Maintenance Activities

616

(1)

20.5.1.2 Primary Preventive Maintenance Activities

616

(3)

20.5.2 Recycling

619

(1)

20.5.2.1 Hot In-Place Recycling

619

(1)

20.5.2.2 Cold Recycling

620

(1)

20.5.2.3 Cold Milling

620

(6)

20.5.2.4 Hot Mix Recycling

626

(15)

20.6 Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Concrete Pavements

641

(2)

20.6.1 Joint and Crack Sealing

641

(1)

20.6.2 Slab Stabilization

641

(1)

20.6.3 Diamond Grinding

641

(1)

20.6.4 Load Transfer Devices

642

(1)

20.6.5 Precast Panels for Repair and Rehabilitation

642

(1)

20.6.6 Portland Cement Concrete Overlays

643

(1)

20.7 Warranty Projects

643

(1)

References

644

(3)

Chapter 21 Airport Pavements

647

(30)

21.1 Types, Importance, and Specifications

647

(1)

21.2 Structural Design of Airport Asphalt Mix Pavements

648

(10)

21.2.1 Design of Flexible Pavement over Existing Pavement

656

(1)

21.2.1.1 HMA Overlay on Existing Flexible Pavement

656

(1)

21.2.1.2 HMA Overlay on Existing Rigid Pavement with or without Existing HMA Overlay

657

(1)

21.3 Design of Concrete Pavements

658

(2)

21.4 Design for Airport Pavements with Light Aircrafts

660

(1)

21.5 Advanced Design Methods

661

(4)

21.5.1 Asphalt Pavements

661

(1)

21.5.1.1 For Vertical Strain EV on Top of the Subgrade

662

(1)

21.5.1.2 For Horizontal Strain eh at the Bottom of the Surface Layer

662

(1)

21.5.2 Rigid Pavements

663

(2)

21.6 Nondestructive Testing and Rehabilitation of Airfield Pavements

665

(2)

21.7 ACN-PCN

667

(1)

21.8 Rehabilitation of PCC Airport Pavements

668

(1)

21.9 Construction Quality Control and Acceptance Testing

669

(1)

21.10 Constructing, Checking, and Improving Friction/Skid Resistance Drainage of Runways

670

(2)

21.11 Asphalt Mixes for Airport Pavement

672

(1)

21.11.1 Fuel-Resistant Mix

672

(1)

21.11.2 Construction and Maintenance of Longitudinal Joints

673

(1)

21.11.3 Time of Construction

673

(1)

21.11.4 Deicing and Anti-Icing

673

(1)

21.12 Maintenance of Airport Pavements

673

(1)

21.13 Common Problems in Airport Pavements

674

(1)

References

675

(2)

Chapter 22 Nondestructive Tests

677

(18)

22.1 Nuclear Gage

677

(1)

22.2 Falling Weight Deflectometer

677

(7)

22.2.1 Direct Use of Deflections

678

(2)

22.2.1.1 Relationship Between Deflection Bowl Parameters and Stresses and Strains at Various Locations in the Pavement

680

(1)

22.2.2 Back-Calculation

681

(1)

22.2.2.1 Modeling Thin Layers

682

(1)

22.2.2.2 Modeling Subgrades

682

(1)

22.2.2.3 Modeling Bedrock

682

(1)

22.2.2.4 Stress-Dependent Materials

682

(1)

22.2.2.5 Spatial Variations

683

(1)

22.2.2.6 Seasonal Variations

683

(1)

22.2.2.7 Detection of Voids in PCC Pavements

683

(1)

22.2.2.8 Detection of Nonresilient Pavement Layer Behavior

683

(1)

22.2.2.9 Evaluation of Experimental Paving Materials

684

(1)

22.2.2.10 Determination of Load Transfer Efficiency for Jointed PCC Pavements

684

(1)

22.3 Other Applications of FWD Data for Rigid Pavements

684

(1)

22.4 Light Weight Deflectometer (ASTM E 2583)

685

(1)

22.5 Continuous Deflection Device

686

(1)

22.6 GeoGauge (Soil Stiffness Gauge) for Soil Compaction

686

(2)

22.7 Ground-Penetrating Radar

688

(1)

22.8 Portable Seismic Pavement Analyzer

689

(1)

22.9 Free Free Resonant Column Test

690

(1)

22.10 Ultrasonic Test

691

(1)

22.11 Magnetic Induction Tomography

691

(1)

22.12 Infrared Devices

692

(1)

22.13 Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) Systems

692

(1)

References

693

(2)

Chapter 23 Economic Analysis and Cost-Saving Concepts

695

(16)

23.1 Economic Analysis

695

(11)

23.1.1 Engineering Economy

695

(1)

23.1.2 Concept of Life Cycle Cost

695

(1)

23.1.3 Techniques

695

(4)

23.1.4 Costs in Life Cycle Cost Analysis

699

(1)

23.1.5 Probabilistic Approach

700

(4)

23.1.6 Information on Life Cycle Cost Analysis for Pavements

704

(1)

23.1.7 Software for Running Life Cycle Cost Analysis

704

(2)

23.2 Cost-Saving Concepts

706

(3)

23.2.1 Principles of Perpetual Pavements

706

(2)

23.2.2 Economic Benefits of Recycling

708

(1)

References

709

(2)

Chapter 24 Instrumentation in Asphalt and Concrete Pavement

711

(6)

24.1 Temperature

711

(1)

24.2 Soil Moisture Content

712

(1)

24.3 Frost Depth

712

(1)

24.4 Strain in Asphalt or Concrete Pavement and Soil Layers

713

(1)

24.5 Stress in Soil Layers

714

(1)

24.6 Deflection in Layers

714

(1)

24.7 Data Acquisition Systems

714

(3)

Chapter 25 Specialty Applications

717

(14)

25.1 Asphalt Mixtures

717

(9)

25.1.1 Polymer-Modified Asphalt

717

(1)

25.1.2 Asphalt Rubber Mixes

718

(1)

25.1.3 Stone Matrix Asphalt

719

(1)

25.1.4 Porous Friction Course

720

(1)

25.1.5 Warm Mix Asphalt

721

(2)

25.1.5.1 WMA and RAP

723

(1)

25.1.5.2 Adoption

723

(1)

25.1.5.3 Regular Use of WMA

724

(1)

25.1.5.4 Mix Design

724

(1)

25.1.5.5 Moisture Susceptibility Concern

725

(1)

25.1.6 Ultrathin Wearing Course

726

(1)

25.2 Concrete Whitetopping

726

(1)

25.3 Porous Asphalt Pavements

727

(1)

25.4 Pervious Concrete

728

(1)

25.5 Waste Plastics in Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) Layers

728

(1)

References

729

(2)

Chapter 26 Sustainable Pavement Engineering

731

(24)

26.1 Overview

731

(9)

26.1.1 Sustainable Construction (SC)

732

(1)

26.1.1.1 Sustainability in Transportation and Pavement Engineering

733

(2)

26.1.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

735

(5)

26.1.3 Sustainable Construction Practices

740

(1)

26.2 Sustainable Pavement Engineering

740

(8)

26.2.1 Sustainable Asphalt of Flexible Pavements

741

(3)

26.2.2 Sustainable Rigid or Concrete Pavements

744

(1)

26.2.3 Measuring Sustainability

745

(1)

26.2.4 Pavement and Rehabilitation Design to Improve Sustainability

745

(2)

26.2.5 Construction Considerations

747

(1)

26.2.6 User Phase Consideration

747

(1)

26.2.7 Guidelines for Measuring and Improving Sustainability

747

(1)

26.3 Resilient Pavements

748

(2)

References

750

(5)

Chapter 27 Environmental Mitigation in Transportation Projects

755

(20)

27.1 Introduction

755

(1)

27.2 How Transportation Impacts the Environment

755

(1)

27.3 NEPA: A Model for Assessing Impacts and Developing Mitigation Measures

756

(2)

27.4 Framing Mitigation Best Practices

758

(11)

27.4.1 Project Conception

759

(1)

27.4.2 Impact Assessment

760

(1)

27.4.2.1 The Environmental Assessment (EA)

760

(1)

27.4.2.2 The Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)

761

(2)

27.4.2.3 SEPA Impact Assessment Examples

763

(1)

27.4.3 Alternatives Analysis

763

(1)

27.4.4 Public Involvement and Review

764

(5)

27.5 Enforcement and Post-Project Monitoring

769

(3)

27.6 Transportation Planning and Regional Mitigation Approaches

772

(2)

References

774

(1)

Index

775

Rajib Mallick, PE, has extensive experience with asphalt materials, mixture design, construction, pavement design, recycling, and nondestructive testing. From 1992 to 1998, he worked as a research assistant and as a senior research associate at the National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT) and is currently a Visiting Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering (CEE) at the University of Texas at El Paso. He has completed numerous research projects for several departments of transportation, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), the Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and several private practitioner organizations. Dr. Mallick has coauthored more than 100 papers for journals and conference proceedings, as well as several practical reports, manuals, and state-of-the-practice reports for federal, state, and local highway agencies.

Dr. Tahar El-Korchi is a professor and head of civil and environmental engineering at Worcester Polytechnic Institute. He does research and teaches courses on pavement analysis, design and management, construction materials testing and evaluation, cement and concrete materials and construction processes, structural analysis and design, and high-performance structural materials at the undergraduate and graduate level. He has published more than 80 publications and presentations and has served at numerous WPI global project centers, including Puerto Rico; Washington, District of Columbia; Morocco; Costa Rica; and Panama. Dr. El-Korchi was granted the prestigious Presidential Young Investigator Award by the National Science Foundation in 1991. Dr. El-Korchi is also a consultant to several major corporations. He provides recommendations for the design and evaluation of pavements, materials, and structures.

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