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E-grāmata: Physico-chemical Aspects of Textile Coloration [Wiley Online]

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The production of textile materials comprises a very large, complex, global industry that utilises a diverse range of fibre types and creates a variety of textile products. As the great majority of such products are coloured, predominantly using aqueous dyeing processes, the coloration of textiles is a large scale, global business in which complex procedures are used to apply different types of dye to the various types of textile material. The development of such dyeing processes is the result of substantial research activity, undertaken over many decades, into the physico-chemical aspects of dye adsorption, and the establishment ofdyeing theory, which seeks to describe the mechanism by which dyes interact with textile fibres.

Physico-chemical Aspects of Textile Coloration provides a comprehensive treatment of the physical chemistry involved in the dyeing of the major types of natural, man-made and synthetic fibres with the principal types of dye. The book covers:

  • fundamental aspects of the physical and chemical structure of both fibres and dyes, together with the structure and properties of water, in relation to dyeing;
  • dyeing as an area of study as well as the terminology employed in dyeing technology and science;
  • contemporary views of intermolecular forces and the nature of the interactions that can occur between dyes and fibres at a molecular level;
  • fundamental principles involved in dyeing theory, as represented by the thermodynamicsand kinetics of dye sorption;
  • detailed accounts of the mechanism of dyeing that applies to cotton (and other cellulosic fibres), polyester, polyamide, wool, polyacrylonitrile and silk fibres;
  • non-aqueous dyeing, as represented by the use of air, organic solvents and supercritical CO2 fluid as alternatives to water as application medium.

The text is supported by a large number of tables, figures and illustrations as well as footnotes; widespread use is made of references to published work. The book is essential reading for students, teachers, researchers and professionals involved in textile coloration.

Society of Dyers and Colourists xi
Preface xiii
1 Fundamental Aspects of Textile Fibres 1(64)
1.1 Textiles
1(5)
1.1.1 Yarn
2(2)
1.1.2 Fabric
4(2)
1.1.3 Textile Markets
6(1)
1.2 Textile Fibres
6(21)
1.2.1 Textile Fibre Classification
7(2)
1.2.2 Textile Usage
9(1)
1.2.3 The History and Development of Textile Fibres
9(3)
1.2.4 Textile Polymers
12(4)
1.2.5 Textile Fibre Morphology and Fine Structure
16(11)
1.3 General Physical and Mechanical Characteristics of Textile Fibres
27(8)
1.3.1 Length
27(1)
1.3.2 Fineness
27(5)
1.3.3 Twist
32(1)
1.3.4 Fibre Specific Surface Area, Sm or Sv
33(1)
1.3.5 Cross-Sectional Shape
33(2)
1.4 Properties of Textile Fibres
35(16)
1.4.1 Mechanical Properties
35(2)
1.4.2 Thermal Properties
37(11)
1.4.3 Optical Properties
48(3)
References
51(14)
2 Dyes 65(16)
Introduction
65(1)
2.1 Dyes
65(11)
2.1.1 Historical Aspects
66(5)
2.1.2 Classification of Colorants
71(4)
2.1.3 Colour and Constitution
75(1)
2.1.4 Commercial Dye Forms
75(1)
2.1.5 Commercial Dye Names
76(1)
2.1.6 Global Dye Consumption
76(1)
References
76(5)
3 The Role of Water in Aqueous Dyeing 81(72)
Introduction
81(1)
3.1 Water Structure
82(2)
3.2 Water Availability and Global Consumption
84(2)
3.2.1 Water Footprint
85(1)
3.3 Water Use in Dyeing
86(5)
3.3.1 Water Used in Cotton Production
86(1)
3.3.2 Water Used in Fibre Processing
87(1)
3.3.3 Water Used in Dyeing
87(4)
3.4 Water and Textile Fibres
91(25)
3.4.1 Hydrophilicity and Hydrophobicity
93(1)
3.4.2 Moisture Sorption
94(9)
3.4.3 The Porous Nature of Fibres
103(2)
3.4.4 Wetting and Wicking
105(4)
3.4.5 Swelling
109(1)
3.4.6 Water Plasticisation
110(6)
3.5 Water and Dyes
116(18)
3.5.1 Solvation
117(3)
3.5.2 Dye Solubility
120(3)
3.5.3 Dye Aggregation in Solution
123(6)
3.5.4 Dye Aggregation in the Fibre
129(1)
3.5.5 Aqueous Dye Dispersions
129(5)
3.6 pH and pK
134(3)
3.6.1 Water Ionisation (Ionic Product of Water)
134(1)
3.6.2 The pH Scale
135(1)
3.6.3 pKa and pKb
136(1)
3.6.4 Buffer Systems and the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
136(1)
References
137(16)
4 Fundamentals of Dyeing 153(14)
Introduction
153(1)
4.1 Dye-Fibre Systems
154(2)
4.2 Fundamental Principles of Dyeing
156(8)
4.2.1 Dye-Fibre Substantivity
156(1)
4.2.2 Driving Force for Dyeing
157(1)
4.2.3 Dye Exhaustion
157(1)
4.2.4 Rate of Dyeing
158(1)
4.2.5 Depth of Shade
159(1)
4.2.6 Liquor Ratio
159(1)
4.2.7 Dye Fixation
160(1)
4.2.8 Wash-Off
161(1)
4.2.9 Fastness
162(1)
4.2.10 Dyeing Auxiliaries
163(1)
References
164(3)
5 Dye-Fibre Interactions 167(42)
Introduction
167(1)
5.1 Intermolecular Interactions (or Forces) between Atoms and Molecules
167(9)
5.1.1 Covalent Bonds
169(1)
5.1.2 Ion-Ion Interactions (aka Charge-Charge, Coulomb, Electrostatic Interactions)
169(1)
5.1.3 Ion-Dipole Interactions (aka Charge-Dipole, Monopole-Dipole)
169(1)
5.1.4 Van der Waals Interactions (aka van der Waals Forces)
170(2)
5.1.5 Hydrogen Bonds
172(1)
5.1.6 Hydrophobic Effect and Hydrophobic Interactions
172(1)
5.1.7 Total (Attractive and Repulsive) Intermolecular Potentials
173(1)
5.1.8 Aromatic Interactions (aka it-Interactions, it-Effects)
173(3)
5.2 Intermolecular Interactions (or Forces) between Macromolecules and Surfaces
176(14)
5.2.1 Dispersion Interactions
176(2)
5.2.2 Electrostatic Forces
178(12)
5.3 Intermolecular Forces in the Context of Textile Fibres and Dyes
190(2)
5.3.1 Intermolecular Forces in Textile Polymers
190(1)
5.3.2 Intermolecular Forces between Dyes and Fibres
191(1)
5.4 Solubility Parameter
192(3)
5.4.1 Hildebrand Solubility Parameter
193(1)
5.4.2 Hansen Solubility Parameters
193(1)
5.4.3 Solubility Parameters and Dye-Fibre Substantivity
194(1)
5.4.4 Carriers
194(1)
5.5 Fibre Modification to Enhance Dye-Fibre Substantivity
195(5)
5.5.1 Mercerisation
195(2)
5.5.2 Plasma
197(2)
5.5.3 Pre-treatment with Cationic Compounds
199(1)
5.5.4 Nucleophilic Dyes on Modified Substrates
200(1)
References
200(9)
6 Dyeing Theory 209(40)
Introduction
209(1)
6.1 Background
210(1)
6.2 Dyeing Systems at Equilibrium (the Thermodynamics of Dyeing)
211(10)
6.2.1 Adsorption
213(3)
6.2.2 Standard Affinity, Standard Heat and Standard Entropy of Dyeing
216(5)
6.3 Kinetics of Dyeing
221(20)
6.3.1 Diffusion
222(1)
6.3.2 Steady-State and Non-Steady-State Diffusion
223(1)
6.3.3 Fick's Laws of Diffusion
223(1)
6.3.4 Experimental Methods for Determining Diffusion Coefficient
224(4)
6.3.5 Approximate Solutions to Diffusion Equations
228(1)
6.3.6 Characterisation of the Rate of Dyeing
228(1)
6.3.7 Apparent Diffusion Coefficient
229(2)
6.3.8 Boundary Layers in Diffusion
231(2)
6.3.9 Effect of Temperature on Dye Diffusion
233(2)
6.3.10 Influence of Fibre Structure on Diffusion
235(2)
6.3.11 Influence of Dye Structure on Diffusion
237(4)
References
241(8)
7 Cellulosic Fibres 249(110)
Introduction
249(1)
7.1 Cotton
249(1)
7.2 Viscose Fibres
250(2)
7.2.1 Skin-Core Structure
251(1)
7.3 Lyocell Fibres
252(2)
7.4 CA and CTA Fibres
254(2)
7.5 Cellulose Chemistry and Molecular Structure
256(4)
7.5.1 Crystal Forms
257(3)
7.6 Cellulosic Fibre Fine Structure
260(1)
7.7 Hydroxyl Groups in Cellulosic Fibres
261(2)
7.7.1 Accessibility
261(2)
7.8 Water/Cellulose Interactions
263(9)
7.8.1 Moisture Sorption
263(2)
7.8.2 Free and Bound Water
265(1)
7.8.3 Pore Structure
266(1)
7.8.4 Swelling
267(3)
7.8.5 Bleaching of Cotton and Other Cellulosic Fibres
270(1)
7.8.6 Plasticisation
270(2)
7.9 Dye Classes Used on Cellulosic Fibres
272(1)
7.10 The Role of Electrolyte in Cellulosic Fibre Dyeing
273(8)
7.10.1 Nature of the Charged Cellulosic Fibre
274(1)
7.10.2 Zeta Potential of Cellulosic Fibres
274(5)
7.10.3 The Amount of Electrolyte Required to 'Neutralise' the Negative Surface Charge
279(1)
7.10.4 Effect of Electrolyte on Dye Aggregation and Dye Solubility
280(1)
7.11 Direct Dyes
281(21)
7.11.1 Classification of Direct Dyes
282(1)
7.11.2 Thermodynamics of Dyeing
283(14)
7.11.3 Kinetics of Dyeing
297(4)
7.11.4 Aftertreatment
301(1)
7.12 Sulphur Dyes
302(3)
7.12.1 Fundamentals of the Chemistry and Application of Sulphur Dyes for Cellulosic Fibres
303(1)
7.12.2 Dye Application
304(1)
7.13 Vat Dyes
305(14)
7.13.1 Fundamentals of the Chemistry and Application of Vat Dyes for Cellulosic Fibres
306(2)
7.13.2 Reduction
308(4)
7.13.3 Adsorption of the Leuco Derivative (Dyeing)
312(5)
7.13.4 Kinetics of Leuco Vat Application
317(1)
7.13.5 Oxidation of the Adsorbed Dye
318(1)
7.13.6 Soaping
319(1)
7.14 Reactive Dyes
319(18)
7.14.1 Fundamentals of the Chemistry and Application of Reactive Dyes for Cellulosic Fibres
320(5)
7.14.2 Mechanism of Dyeing
325(9)
7.14.3 Wash-Off
334(3)
7.14.4 Aftertreatment
337(1)
7.15 Azoic Colorants
337(3)
7.15.1 Naphtholation
338(1)
7.15.2 Development
338(1)
7.15.3 Wash-Off
339(1)
7.16 Disperse Dyes
340(1)
References
340(19)
8 Polyester Fibres 359(68)
Introduction
359(1)
8.1 PES Fibres
359(44)
8.1.1 Fibre Production and Properties
360(1)
8.1.2 Physical Structure
361(2)
8.1.3 Oligomers
363(2)
8.1.4 Sheath/Core Structure
365(1)
8.1.5 Transitions (Relaxations)
365(1)
8.1.6 PES/Water Interactions
366(1)
8.1.7 Dyeing of PES Fibres
367(36)
8.2 PLA Fibres
403(10)
8.2.1 Polymer Synthesis
404(1)
8.2.2 PLA Biodegradability
405(1)
8.2.3 Fibres
405(8)
References
413(14)
9 Polyamide Fibres 427(64)
Introduction
427(1)
9.1 Aliphatic Polyamide Fibres
427(18)
9.1.1 Nomenclature and Types of Polyamides
427(2)
9.1.2 PA 6 and PA 66
429(1)
9.1.3 Physical Structure
430(15)
9.2 Dyeing of Aliphatic Polyamides
445(2)
9.2.1 Effect of Physical Processing on Dyeing
446(1)
9.2.2 Barre Effects
446(1)
9.2.3 Levelling Agents
447(1)
9.3 Acid Dyes
447(20)
9.3.1 Non-metallised Acid Dyes
448(16)
9.3.2 Pre-metallised Acid Dyes (Aka Metal Complex Dyes)
464(1)
9.3.3 Aftertreatment
465(2)
9.4 Disperse Dyes
467(1)
9.5 Mordant Dyes
467(1)
9.6 Direct Dyes
468(1)
9.7 Reactive Dyes
468(2)
9.7.1 Anionic Reactive Dyes
469(1)
9.7.2 Disperse Reactive Dyes
470(1)
9.8 Sulphur Dyes
470(1)
9.9 Vat Dyes
471(1)
9.10 Azoic Colorants
471(1)
9.11 Microfibres
471(2)
9.12 Semi-Aromatic Polyamides
473(1)
9.13 Aromatic Polyamides
474(5)
9.13.1 Fine Structure
475(1)
9.13.2 Water/Aramid Interactions
476(2)
9.13.3 Dyeing of Aromatic Polyamide Fibres
478(1)
References
479(12)
10 Wool Fibres 491(40)
Introduction
491(1)
10.1 Wool Chemistry and Molecular Structure
491(9)
10.1.1 Proteins and Amino Acids
491(3)
10.1.2 Fibre Morphology
494(2)
10.1.3 Fine Structure
496(1)
10.1.4 Water/Wool Interactions
497(1)
10.1.5 Swelling and Heat of Sorption
498(1)
10.1.6 Sorption of Acids and Alkalis
499(1)
10.1.7 Water Plasticisation
499(1)
10.1.8 Effect of Physical and Chemical Properties on Dyeing
500(1)
10.2 Dyes for Wool
500(1)
10.3 Non-metallised Acid Dyes
501(15)
10.3.1 Thermodynamics of Dyeing
501(8)
10.3.2 Effect of Electrolyte on Dye Adsorption
509(2)
10.3.3 Affinities of Acids and Dye Anions
511(2)
10.3.4 Kinetics of Dyeing
513(3)
10.4 Pre-metallised Acid Dyes (Aka Metal Complex Dyes)
516(3)
10.4.1 1:1 Metal Complex Dyes
517(1)
10.4.2 1:2 Metal Complex Dyes
518(1)
10.5 Mordant Dyes
519(2)
10.5.1 Mechanism of Chroming
520(1)
10.6 Reactive Dyes
521(3)
10.6.1 Historical Aspects
521(1)
10.6.2 Chemistry and Application of Reactive Dyes
521(1)
10.6.3 Levelling Agents
522(2)
References
524(7)
11 Acrylic (polyacrylonitrile) Fibres 531(28)
Introduction
531(1)
11.1 Fibre Production and Properties
531(1)
11.2 Physical Structure
532(3)
11.2.1 Crystallinity or Pseudocrystallinity
533(1)
11.2.2 Transitions (Relaxations)
533(1)
11.2.3 Theories of Fine Structure
533(2)
11.3 PAN/Water Interactions
535(1)
11.3.1 Water Plasticisation
535(1)
11.4 Dyes for PAN Fibres
536(1)
11.5 Basic Dyes
536(15)
11.5.1 Historical Aspects
536(1)
11.5.2 General Characteristics of Basic Dyes
537(6)
11.5.3 Thermodynamics of Dyeing 53A
11.5.4 Kinetics of Dyeing
543(2)
11.5.5 Effect of Electrolytes on Dyeing
545(2)
11.5.6 Effect of pH on Dyeing
547(1)
11.5.7 Effect of Temperature on Dyeing
548(2)
11.5.8 Retarding Agents
550(1)
11.5.9 Dyes in Admixture
550(1)
11.5.10 Carriers
551(1)
11.6 Disperse Dyes
551(2)
11.6.1 Thermodynamics of Dyeing
552(1)
11.6.2 Kinetics of Dyeing
552(1)
References
553(6)
12 Silk Fibres 559(12)
12.1 Fibre Morphology
559(1)
12.2 Silk Chemistry and Molecular Structure
559(1)
12.3 Fine Structure
560(4)
12.4 Silk/Water Interactions
564(1)
12.4.1 Water Plasticisation
564(1)
12.5 Dyes for Silk
565(3)
12.5.1 Acid Dyes
566(1)
12.5.2 Reactive Dyes
567(1)
References
568(3)
13 Non-aqueous Dyeing 571(30)
Introduction
571(1)
13.1 Dyeing from Air (Vapour-Phase Dyeing; Thermofixation)
571(4)
13.1.1 General Introduction
571(1)
13.1.2 Thermodynamics of Dyeing
571(2)
13.1.3 Kinetics of Dyeing
573(2)
13.2 Dyeing from Supercritical Carbon Dioxide
575(17)
13.2.1 General Introduction
575(1)
13.2.2 Properties of Supercritical CO2 Fluids
575(2)
13.2.3 Solubility of Dyes in Supercritical CO2
577(2)
13.2.4 Effect of Supercritical CO2 on Fibres
579(3)
13.2.5 Dyeing from Supercritical CO2
582(10)
13.3 Dyeing from Liquid (Non-aqueous) Solvents
592(2)
13.3.1 PER Dyeing
592(2)
13.3.2 Solvent-Assisted Dyeing
594(1)
References
594(7)
Colorants Index 601(4)
Subject Index 605
Professor Stephen Burkinshaw is a Professor of Textile Chemistry at the University of Leeds. His research interests include the chemistry and application of dyes and pigments to natural and man-made fibres, colour measurement and textile finishing. He is the author of ~200 publications including a textbook on dyeing theory (Chemical Principles of Synthetic Fibre Dyeing, Springer, 1995.) and section editor for the Springer publication, Encyclopedia of Colour Science and Technology, which is due for publication in 2013. As both a tutor of part-time students sitting ASDC Paper C: Properties of Materials and Finished Products and Fundamental Mechanisms of Industrial Processes and examiner of ASDC Paper C (1994-1999), as well as the person responsible for teaching and examining all three undergraduate years in Dyeing Theory within the Department of Colour Science at Leeds University, Professor Burkinshaw has first-hand, tangible experience of how students view and use this particular book.
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