| Preface |
|
xix | |
|
The dielectric permeability |
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|
1 | (43) |
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|
1 | (9) |
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Electric field and magnetic induction |
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|
1 | (1) |
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Electric polarization of the medium |
|
|
2 | (1) |
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The dependence of the dielectric permeability on direction and frequency |
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|
3 | (1) |
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The physical meaning of the electric susceptibility X |
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|
4 | (2) |
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Magnetic polarization of the medium |
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|
6 | (1) |
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The magnetic susceptibility |
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|
7 | (1) |
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|
7 | (1) |
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Free charges and polarization charges |
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|
8 | (1) |
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|
9 | (1) |
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Waves in a dielectric medium |
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|
10 | (5) |
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10 | (1) |
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11 | (1) |
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The optical constant or refractive index |
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|
12 | (1) |
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Energy dissipation of a grain in a variable field |
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13 | (2) |
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15 | (7) |
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15 | (1) |
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16 | (1) |
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The general solution to the oscillator equation |
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17 | (1) |
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Dissipation of energy in a forced oscillation |
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|
18 | (1) |
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Dissipation of energy in a free oscillation |
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19 | (1) |
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20 | (1) |
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Dispersion relation of the dielectric permeability |
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|
20 | (2) |
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The harmonic oscillator and light |
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|
22 | (10) |
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Attenuation and refraction of light |
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|
23 | (1) |
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Retarded potentials of a moving charge |
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24 | (2) |
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Emission of an harmonic oscillator |
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26 | (1) |
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Radiation of higher order |
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27 | (1) |
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28 | (1) |
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The cross section of an harmonic oscillator |
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29 | (1) |
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30 | (1) |
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31 | (1) |
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Waves in a conducting medium |
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|
32 | (6) |
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The dielectric permeability of a conductor |
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|
33 | (1) |
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Conductivity and the Drude profile |
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|
34 | (2) |
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Electromagnetic waves in a plasma with a magnetic field |
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36 | (1) |
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Group velocity of electromagnetic waves in a plasma |
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|
37 | (1) |
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Polarization through orientation |
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|
38 | (6) |
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Polarization in a constant field |
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|
38 | (1) |
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Polarization in a time-variable field |
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|
39 | (1) |
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Relaxation after switching off the field |
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|
40 | (1) |
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The dielectric permeability in Debye relaxation |
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|
41 | (3) |
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How to evaluate grain cross sections |
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|
44 | (36) |
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44 | (3) |
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Cross section for scattering, absorption and extinction |
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44 | (2) |
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Cross section for radiation pressure |
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46 | (1) |
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Efficiencies, mass and volume coefficients |
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|
47 | (1) |
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47 | (4) |
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The intensity of forward scattered light |
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47 | (3) |
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The refractive index of a dusty medium |
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50 | (1) |
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51 | (6) |
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52 | (1) |
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52 | (2) |
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Series expansion of waves |
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54 | (1) |
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54 | (2) |
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Scattered and absorbed power |
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56 | (1) |
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Absorption and scattering efficiencies |
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57 | (1) |
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Polarization and scattering |
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|
57 | (7) |
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The amplitude scattering matrix |
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57 | (1) |
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Angle-dependence of scattering |
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58 | (2) |
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60 | (1) |
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61 | (1) |
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Stokes parameters of scattered light for a sphere |
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62 | (2) |
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The Kramers--Kronig relations |
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64 | (7) |
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Mathematical formulation of the relations |
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64 | (2) |
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The electric susceptibility and causality |
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66 | (1) |
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The Kramers--Kronig relation for the dielectric permeability |
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|
67 | (1) |
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67 | (1) |
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Dispersion of the magnetic susceptibility |
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68 | (1) |
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Three corollaries of the KK relation |
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69 | (2) |
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71 | (9) |
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Effective medium theories |
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|
72 | (1) |
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73 | (1) |
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The mixing rule of Bruggeman |
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|
74 | (1) |
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Composition of grains in protostellar cores |
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|
74 | (2) |
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How size, ice and porosity change the absorption coefficient |
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|
76 | (4) |
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Very small and very big particles |
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80 | (39) |
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80 | (7) |
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When is a particle in the Rayleigh limit? |
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|
80 | (1) |
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Efficiencies of small spheres from Mie theory |
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|
81 | (1) |
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A dielectric sphere in a constant electric field |
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|
82 | (2) |
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Scattering and absorption in the electrostatic approximation |
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|
84 | (1) |
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Polarization and angle-dependent scattering |
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|
85 | (1) |
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Small-size effects beyond Mie theory |
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86 | (1) |
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A small metallic sphere in a magnetic field |
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|
87 | (3) |
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|
87 | (2) |
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The magnetic polarizability |
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|
89 | (1) |
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|
89 | (1) |
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Limiting values of the magnetic polarizability |
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|
90 | (1) |
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|
90 | (9) |
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91 | (1) |
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An ellipsoid in a constant electric field |
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|
92 | (1) |
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Cross section and shape factor |
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|
93 | (2) |
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Randomly oriented ellipsoids |
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|
95 | (1) |
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|
95 | (2) |
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Rotation about the axis of greatest moment of inertia |
|
|
97 | (2) |
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The fields inside a dielectric particle |
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|
99 | (4) |
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Internal field and depolarization field |
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|
99 | (1) |
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Depolarization field and the distribution of surface charges |
|
|
100 | (1) |
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The local field at an atom |
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101 | (1) |
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The Clausius--Mossotti relation |
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101 | (2) |
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103 | (16) |
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103 | (1) |
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Reflection and transmission at a plane surface |
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104 | (2) |
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106 | (3) |
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Fresnel zones and a check on Huygens' principle |
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|
109 | (2) |
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111 | (1) |
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Diffraction by a circular hole or a sphere |
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|
111 | (2) |
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Diffraction behind a half-plane |
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|
113 | (3) |
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Particles of small refractive index |
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116 | (1) |
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|
117 | (2) |
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Case studies of Mie calculus |
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119 | (26) |
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Efficiencies of bare spheres |
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|
119 | (8) |
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|
119 | (1) |
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120 | (2) |
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|
122 | (1) |
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|
123 | (1) |
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Efficiency versus cross section and volume coefficient |
|
|
123 | (3) |
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The atmosphere of the Earth |
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|
126 | (1) |
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Scattering by bare spheres |
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|
127 | (5) |
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|
|
127 | (1) |
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The polarization of scattered light |
|
|
128 | (3) |
|
The intensity of scattered light in a reflection nebula |
|
|
131 | (1) |
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|
|
132 | (1) |
|
Surface modes in small grains |
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|
133 | (3) |
|
Efficiencies of idealized dielectrics and metals |
|
|
136 | (9) |
|
Dielectric sphere consisting of identical harmonic oscillators |
|
|
136 | (2) |
|
Dielectric sphere with Debye relaxation |
|
|
138 | (1) |
|
Magnetic and electric dipole absorption of small metal spheres |
|
|
139 | (2) |
|
Efficiencies for Drude profiles |
|
|
141 | (1) |
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Elongated metallic particles |
|
|
142 | (3) |
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|
|
145 | (30) |
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|
|
145 | (6) |
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The probability of an arbitrary energy distribution |
|
|
145 | (1) |
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The distribution of maximum probability |
|
|
146 | (1) |
|
Partition function and population of energy cells |
|
|
147 | (2) |
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The mean energy of harmonic oscillators |
|
|
149 | (1) |
|
The Maxwellian velocity distribution |
|
|
149 | (2) |
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|
|
151 | (9) |
|
The unit cell h3 of the phase space |
|
|
151 | (1) |
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|
152 | (2) |
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|
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154 | (2) |
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Bose statistics for photons |
|
|
156 | (1) |
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|
|
157 | (1) |
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Ionization equilibrium and the Saha equation |
|
|
158 | (2) |
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160 | (10) |
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|
|
160 | (2) |
|
Definition of entropy and temperature |
|
|
162 | (1) |
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The canonical distribution |
|
|
163 | (1) |
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Thermodynamic relations for a gas |
|
|
164 | (2) |
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Equilibrium conditions of the state functions |
|
|
166 | (2) |
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|
|
168 | (1) |
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The work done by magnetization |
|
|
168 | (1) |
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Susceptibility and specific heat of magnetic substances |
|
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169 | (1) |
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|
170 | (5) |
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|
170 | (1) |
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Low- and high-frequency limit |
|
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171 | (1) |
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Wien's displacement law and the Stefan--Boltzmann law |
|
|
172 | (1) |
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The Planck function and harmonic oscillators |
|
|
173 | (2) |
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The radiative transition probability |
|
|
175 | (26) |
|
A charged particle in an electromagnetic field |
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|
175 | (6) |
|
The classical Hamiltonian |
|
|
175 | (1) |
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The Hamiltonian of an electron in an electromagnetic field |
|
|
176 | (1) |
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The Hamilton operator in quantum mechanics |
|
|
177 | (2) |
|
The dipole moment in quantum mechanics |
|
|
179 | (1) |
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The quantized harmonic oscillator |
|
|
179 | (2) |
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|
|
181 | (2) |
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|
|
181 | (1) |
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The transition probability |
|
|
181 | (1) |
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Transition probability for a time-variable perturbation |
|
|
182 | (1) |
|
The Einstein coefficients A and B |
|
|
183 | (9) |
|
Induced and spontaneous transitions |
|
|
183 | (3) |
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Selection rules and polarization rules |
|
|
186 | (1) |
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Quantization of the electromagnetic field |
|
|
186 | (2) |
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Quantum-mechanical derivation of A and B |
|
|
188 | (4) |
|
Potential wells and tunneling |
|
|
192 | (9) |
|
Wavefunction of a particle in a constant potential |
|
|
192 | (1) |
|
Potential walls and Fermi energy |
|
|
192 | (2) |
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Rectangular potential barriers |
|
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194 | (4) |
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The double potential well |
|
|
198 | (3) |
|
Structure and composition of dust |
|
|
201 | (38) |
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201 | (6) |
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201 | (2) |
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203 | (4) |
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207 | (1) |
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207 | (7) |
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208 | (1) |
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209 | (2) |
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211 | (2) |
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van der Waals forces and hydrogen bridges |
|
|
213 | (1) |
|
Reddening by interstellar grains |
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|
214 | (10) |
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|
214 | (2) |
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The interstellar extinction curve |
|
|
216 | (3) |
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219 | (1) |
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220 | (2) |
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The mass absorption coefficient |
|
|
222 | (2) |
|
Carbonaceous grains and silicate grains |
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|
224 | (10) |
|
Origin of the two major dust constituents |
|
|
224 | (1) |
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225 | (2) |
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227 | (5) |
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|
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232 | (1) |
|
A standard set of optical constants |
|
|
233 | (1) |
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Grain sizes and optical constants |
|
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234 | (5) |
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|
|
234 | (2) |
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Collisional fragmentation |
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236 | (3) |
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239 | (36) |
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|
239 | (4) |
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|
|
239 | (1) |
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Thermal emission of grains |
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|
240 | (1) |
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Absorption and emission in thermal equilibrium |
|
|
241 | (1) |
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|
|
242 | (1) |
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The temperature of big grains |
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243 | (8) |
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|
243 | (1) |
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Approximate absorption efficiency at infrared wavelengths |
|
|
243 | (2) |
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|
|
245 | (2) |
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Relation between grain size and grain temperature |
|
|
247 | (1) |
|
Temperature of dust grains near a star |
|
|
248 | (1) |
|
Dust temperatures from observations |
|
|
249 | (2) |
|
The emission spectrum of big grains |
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|
251 | (3) |
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Constant temperature and low optical depth |
|
|
251 | (2) |
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Constant temperature and arbitrary optical depth |
|
|
253 | (1) |
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Calorific properties of solids |
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|
254 | (8) |
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254 | (2) |
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Internal energy of a grain |
|
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256 | (1) |
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Standing waves in a crystal |
|
|
257 | (1) |
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The density of vibrational modes in a crystal |
|
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258 | (1) |
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|
259 | (2) |
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|
261 | (1) |
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Temperature fluctuations of very small grains |
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262 | (6) |
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The probability density P(T) |
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263 | (1) |
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|
263 | (2) |
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|
265 | (1) |
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The stochastic time evolution of grain temperature |
|
|
266 | (2) |
|
The emission spectrum of very small grains |
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|
268 | (7) |
|
Small and moderate fluctuations |
|
|
268 | (2) |
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|
270 | (2) |
|
Temperature fluctuations and flux ratios |
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|
272 | (3) |
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275 | (44) |
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275 | (10) |
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275 | (1) |
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Physical adsorption and chemisorption |
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276 | (3) |
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279 | (2) |
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Thermal hopping, evaporation and reactions with activation barrier |
|
|
281 | (2) |
|
Tunneling between surface sites |
|
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283 | (1) |
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284 | (1) |
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285 | (4) |
|
Charge equilibrium in the absence of a UV radiation field |
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285 | (1) |
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286 | (3) |
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289 | (9) |
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|
|
289 | (1) |
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The drag on a grain subjected to a constant outer force |
|
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289 | (3) |
|
Brownian motion of a grain |
|
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292 | (1) |
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293 | (2) |
|
Laminar and turbulent friction |
|
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295 | (1) |
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|
|
296 | (1) |
|
The Poynting--Robertson effect |
|
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297 | (1) |
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|
298 | (3) |
|
Mass balance in the Milky Way |
|
|
298 | (1) |
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|
299 | (2) |
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|
301 | (18) |
|
Evaporation temperature of dust |
|
|
301 | (3) |
|
Vapor pressure of small grains |
|
|
304 | (1) |
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|
|
305 | (2) |
|
Equations for time-dependent homogeneous nucleation |
|
|
307 | (1) |
|
Equilibrium distribution and steady-state nucleation |
|
|
308 | (3) |
|
Solutions to time-dependent homogeneous nucleation |
|
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311 | (5) |
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316 | (3) |
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319 | (28) |
|
Efficiency of infinite cylinders |
|
|
319 | (8) |
|
Normal incidence and picket fence alignment |
|
|
319 | (3) |
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|
|
322 | (1) |
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|
|
322 | (3) |
|
Absorption efficiency as a function of wavelength |
|
|
325 | (2) |
|
Linear polarization through extinction |
|
|
327 | (12) |
|
Effective optical depth and degree of polarization p(λ) |
|
|
327 | (2) |
|
|
|
329 | (2) |
|
Polarization p(λ) of infinite cylinders |
|
|
331 | (3) |
|
Polarization p(λ) of ellipsoids in the Rayleigh limit |
|
|
334 | (3) |
|
Polarization p(λ) of spheroids at optical wavelengths |
|
|
337 | (1) |
|
Polarization and reddening |
|
|
338 | (1) |
|
|
|
339 | (3) |
|
The wavelength dependence of polarized emission for cylinders |
|
|
340 | (1) |
|
Infrared emission of spheroids |
|
|
340 | (1) |
|
Polarized emission versus polarized extinction |
|
|
341 | (1) |
|
|
|
342 | (5) |
|
The phase shift induced by grains |
|
|
343 | (1) |
|
The wavelength dependence of circular polarization |
|
|
344 | (3) |
|
|
|
347 | (30) |
|
|
|
347 | (8) |
|
Euler's equations for a rotating body |
|
|
347 | (2) |
|
|
|
349 | (2) |
|
Atomic magnet in a magnetic field |
|
|
351 | (1) |
|
Rotational Brownian motion |
|
|
351 | (2) |
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|
353 | (2) |
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|
|
355 | (9) |
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|
|
355 | (1) |
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|
355 | (2) |
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|
|
357 | (1) |
|
The magnetization of iron above and below the Curie point |
|
|
358 | (1) |
|
Paramagnetic dissipation: spin--spin and spin--lattice relaxation |
|
|
359 | (1) |
|
The magnetic susceptibility for spin--lattice relaxation |
|
|
360 | (2) |
|
The magnetic susceptibility in spin--spin relaxation |
|
|
362 | (2) |
|
|
|
364 | (9) |
|
A rotating dipole in a magnetic field |
|
|
365 | (2) |
|
Timescales for alignment and disorder |
|
|
367 | (1) |
|
|
|
368 | (1) |
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|
|
369 | (2) |
|
Alignment of angular momentum with the axis of greatest inertia |
|
|
371 | (1) |
|
Mechanical and magnetic damping |
|
|
372 | (1) |
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|
|
373 | (4) |
|
|
|
373 | (2) |
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|
|
375 | (2) |
|
PAHs and spectral features of dust |
|
|
377 | (19) |
|
|
|
377 | (7) |
|
|
|
377 | (1) |
|
Microcanonic emission of PAHs |
|
|
378 | (1) |
|
The vibrational modes of anthracene |
|
|
379 | (2) |
|
Microcanonic versus thermal level population |
|
|
381 | (1) |
|
Does an ensemble of PAHs have a temperature? |
|
|
382 | (2) |
|
|
|
384 | (4) |
|
|
|
384 | (1) |
|
Cutoff wavelength for electronic excitation |
|
|
385 | (1) |
|
Photo-destruction and ionization |
|
|
386 | (1) |
|
Cross sections and line profiles of PAHs |
|
|
387 | (1) |
|
|
|
388 | (2) |
|
The silicate features and the band at 3.4 μm |
|
|
389 | (1) |
|
|
|
389 | (1) |
|
|
|
390 | (6) |
|
The three dust components |
|
|
392 | (3) |
|
Extinction coefficient in the diffuse medium |
|
|
395 | (1) |
|
Extinction coefficient in protostellar cores |
|
|
395 | (1) |
|
|
|
396 | (29) |
|
|
|
396 | (6) |
|
Radiative intensity and flux |
|
|
396 | (2) |
|
The transfer equation and its formal solution |
|
|
398 | (2) |
|
The brightness temperature |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
The main-beam-brightness temperature of a telescope |
|
|
401 | (1) |
|
|
|
402 | (7) |
|
Moment equations for spheres |
|
|
403 | (1) |
|
|
|
404 | (1) |
|
Differential equations for the intensity |
|
|
405 | (2) |
|
Integral equations for the intensity |
|
|
407 | (1) |
|
|
|
407 | (2) |
|
|
|
409 | (6) |
|
Radiative transfer in a plane parallel layer |
|
|
409 | (5) |
|
The grazing angle in an inflated disk |
|
|
414 | (1) |
|
|
|
415 | (3) |
|
Hot spots in a spherical stellar cluster |
|
|
415 | (1) |
|
Low and high luminosity stars |
|
|
416 | (2) |
|
|
|
418 | (7) |
|
Absorption coefficient and absorption profile |
|
|
418 | (1) |
|
The excitation temperature of a line |
|
|
419 | (1) |
|
Radiative transfer in lines |
|
|
420 | (5) |
|
Diffuse matter in the Milky Way |
|
|
425 | (36) |
|
Overview of the Milky Way |
|
|
425 | (2) |
|
|
|
425 | (1) |
|
|
|
426 | (1) |
|
|
|
427 | (11) |
|
|
|
428 | (3) |
|
Population of levels in CO |
|
|
431 | (4) |
|
|
|
435 | (1) |
|
Formation of molecular hydrogen on dust surfaces |
|
|
435 | (3) |
|
Clouds of atomic hydrogen |
|
|
438 | (10) |
|
General properties of the diffuse gas |
|
|
438 | (1) |
|
The 21 cm line of atomic hydrogen |
|
|
439 | (1) |
|
How the hyperfine levels of atomic hydrogen are excited |
|
|
440 | (3) |
|
Gas density and temperature from the 21 cm line |
|
|
443 | (1) |
|
The deuterium hyperfine line |
|
|
444 | (2) |
|
Electron density and magnetic field in the diffuse gas |
|
|
446 | (2) |
|
|
|
448 | (9) |
|
Ionization and recombination |
|
|
448 | (2) |
|
|
|
450 | (3) |
|
|
|
453 | (2) |
|
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
Mass estimates of interstellar clouds |
|
|
457 | (4) |
|
From optically thin CO lines |
|
|
457 | (1) |
|
|
|
458 | (1) |
|
|
|
459 | (2) |
|
Stars and their formation |
|
|
461 | (44) |
|
Stars on and beyond the main sequence |
|
|
461 | (10) |
|
Nuclear burning and the creation of elements |
|
|
461 | (2) |
|
The binding energy of an atomic nucleus |
|
|
463 | (2) |
|
|
|
465 | (2) |
|
|
|
467 | (2) |
|
Lifetime and luminosity of stars |
|
|
469 | (1) |
|
The initial mass function |
|
|
470 | (1) |
|
Clouds near gravitational equilibrium |
|
|
471 | (15) |
|
|
|
471 | (3) |
|
Isothermal cloud in pressure equilibrium |
|
|
474 | (1) |
|
Structure and stability of Ebert--Bonnor spheres |
|
|
475 | (4) |
|
|
|
479 | (1) |
|
The critical mass for gravitational instability |
|
|
480 | (2) |
|
Implications of the Jeans criterion |
|
|
482 | (2) |
|
Magnetic fields and ambipolar diffusion |
|
|
484 | (2) |
|
|
|
486 | (8) |
|
|
|
486 | (1) |
|
Hydrodynamic collapse simulations |
|
|
487 | (4) |
|
Similarity solutions of collapse |
|
|
491 | (3) |
|
|
|
494 | (11) |
|
|
|
494 | (3) |
|
Dynamical equations of the thin accretion disk |
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
|
|
498 | (1) |
|
Why a star accretes from a disk |
|
|
499 | (2) |
|
The stationary accretion disk |
|
|
501 | (1) |
|
|
|
501 | (2) |
|
Disk heating by viscosity |
|
|
503 | (2) |
|
Emission from young stars |
|
|
505 | (34) |
|
The earliest stages of star formation |
|
|
505 | (3) |
|
|
|
505 | (1) |
|
Isothermal gravitationally-bound clumps |
|
|
506 | (2) |
|
|
|
508 | (10) |
|
The density structure of a protostar |
|
|
508 | (5) |
|
Dust emission from a solar-type protostar |
|
|
513 | (2) |
|
Kinematics of protostellar collapse |
|
|
515 | (3) |
|
|
|
518 | (6) |
|
|
|
518 | (3) |
|
A flat non-blackbody disk |
|
|
521 | (1) |
|
Radiative transfer in an inflated disk |
|
|
522 | (2) |
|
|
|
524 | (2) |
|
Cold and warm dust in galaxies |
|
|
526 | (5) |
|
|
|
531 | (8) |
|
Repetitive bursts of star formation |
|
|
531 | (4) |
|
Dust emission from starburst nuclei |
|
|
535 | (4) |
| Appendix A Mathematical formulae |
|
539 | (6) |
| Appendix B List of symbols |
|
545 | (4) |
| References |
|
549 | (3) |
| Index |
|
552 | |
