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1 Cosmic Plasma Fundamentals |
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1 | (40) |
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1 | (2) |
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1.2 The Physical Sizes and Characteristics of Plasmas in the Universe |
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3 | (14) |
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3 | (2) |
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5 | (3) |
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1.2.3 Plasmas in the Solar System |
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8 | (1) |
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1.2.4 Transition Regions in the Solar System |
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8 | (3) |
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1.2.5 Solar, Stellar, and Interstellar Plasmas |
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11 | (5) |
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1.2.6 Galactic and Extragalactic Plasmas |
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16 | (1) |
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1.3 Regions of Applicability of Plasma Physics |
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17 | (3) |
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1.4 Power Generation and Transmission |
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20 | (2) |
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1.5 Electrical Discharges in Cosmic Plasma |
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22 | (3) |
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1.6 Particle Acceleration in Cosmic Plasma |
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25 | (1) |
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1.6.1 Acceleration of Electric Charges |
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25 | (1) |
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1.6.2 Collective Ion Acceleration |
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25 | (1) |
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1.7 Plasma Pinches and Instabilities |
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26 | (6) |
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26 | (1) |
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1.7.2 The Force-Free Configuration |
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26 | (1) |
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1.7.3 The Diocotron Instability |
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27 | (1) |
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1.7.4 Critical Ionization Velocity |
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28 | (4) |
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1.8 Diagnosing Cosmic Plasmas |
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32 | (9) |
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1.8.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum |
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32 | (4) |
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1.8.2 In Situ Space Probes |
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36 | (1) |
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37 | (4) |
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2 Birkeland Currents in Cosmic Plasma |
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41 | (52) |
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2.1 History of Birkeland Currents |
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41 | (5) |
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2.2 Field-Aligned Currents in Laboratory Plasma |
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46 | (1) |
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2.3 Field-Aligned Currents in Astrophysical Plasmas |
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46 | (1) |
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2.4 Basic Equations of Magnetohydrodynamics |
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47 | (3) |
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2.4.1 General Plasma Fluid Equations |
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47 | (2) |
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2.4.2 Magnetic Reynolds and Lundquist Numbers |
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49 | (1) |
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2.5 The Generalized Bennett Relation |
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50 | (9) |
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2.5.1 The Bennett Relation |
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52 | (1) |
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2.5.2 Alfven Limiting Current |
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53 | (1) |
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2.5.3 Charge Neutralized Beam Propagation |
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54 | (1) |
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2.5.4 Current Neutralized Beam Propagation |
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54 | (1) |
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55 | (1) |
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2.5.6 Beam Propagation Along an External Magnetic Field |
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55 | (1) |
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2.5.7 Schonherr Whirl Stabilization |
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56 | (1) |
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2.5.8 The Carlqvist Relation |
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56 | (1) |
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2.5.9 The Cylindrical Pinch |
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57 | (2) |
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59 | (1) |
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2.6 Application of the Carlqvist Relation |
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59 | (5) |
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2.6.1 Birkeland Currents in Earth's Magnetosphere |
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59 | (2) |
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2.6.2 Currents in the Solar Atmosphere |
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61 | (1) |
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2.6.3 Heliospheric Currents |
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61 | (1) |
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2.6.4 Currents in the Interstellar Medium |
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62 | (1) |
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2.6.5 Currents in the Galactic Medium |
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63 | (1) |
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2.6.6 Currents in the Intergalactic Medium |
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64 | (1) |
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2.7 Basic Fluid and Beam Instabilities |
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64 | (4) |
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2.7.1 Jeans Condition for Gravitational Instability |
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64 | (2) |
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2.7.2 Two-Stream (Buneman) Instability |
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66 | (2) |
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2.7.3 Sausage and Kink Instabilities |
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68 | (1) |
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2.8 Laboratory Simulation of Cosmic Plasma Processes |
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68 | (5) |
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2.8.1 High-Current Plasma Pinches |
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69 | (3) |
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2.8.2 Laboratory Aurora Simulations |
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72 | (1) |
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2.9 The Particle-in-Cell Simulation of Beams and Birkeland Currents |
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73 | (20) |
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2.9.1 Charge and Current Neutralized Beam Propagation in Plasma |
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75 | (1) |
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2.9.2 Relativistic and Mildly Relativistic Beam Propagation in Plasma |
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76 | (1) |
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2.9.3 Propagation of a Relativistic Beam Bunch Through Plasma |
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77 | (1) |
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78 | (1) |
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2.9.5 Dynamical Evolution of a Narrow Birkeland Filament |
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79 | (3) |
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2.9.6 Vortex Formation in Thin Cylindrical Electron Beams Propagating Along a Magnetic Field |
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82 | (4) |
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2.9.7 Charge-Neutralized Relativistic Electron Beam Propagation Along a Magnetic Field |
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86 | (1) |
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2.9.8 Numerical Aurora Simulations |
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87 | (1) |
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88 | (5) |
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3 Biot-Savart Law in Cosmic Plasma |
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93 | (46) |
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93 | (1) |
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3.2 The Magnetic Interaction of Steady Line Currents |
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94 | (1) |
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3.3 The Magnetic Induction Field |
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95 | (3) |
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3.3.1 Field from an Infinite Conductor of Finite Radius |
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97 | (1) |
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3.3.2 Force Between Two Infinite Conductors |
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97 | (1) |
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98 | (3) |
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3.4.1 Field from a Circular Loop and Force Between Two Circular Loops |
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99 | (2) |
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3.4.2 Force Between Two Circular Loops Lying in a Plane |
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101 | (1) |
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3.5 Quasi-stationary Magnetic Fields |
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101 | (3) |
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101 | (1) |
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3.5.2 Motion Induced Electric Fields |
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102 | (1) |
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3.5.3 Faraday Disk Dynamo |
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103 | (1) |
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104 | (1) |
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3.7 Storage of Magnetic Energy |
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105 | (2) |
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3.7.1 Energy in a System of Current Loops |
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105 | (1) |
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3.7.2 In Situ Storage in Force Free Magnetic Field Configurations |
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106 | (1) |
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3.8 Forces as Derivatives of Coefficients of Inductance |
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107 | (1) |
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3.9 Measurement of Magnetic Fields in Laboratory Plasmas |
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108 | (1) |
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3.10 Particle-in-Cell Simulation of Interacting Currents |
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109 | (12) |
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110 | (1) |
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3.10.2 Initial Motion of Current Filaments |
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111 | (2) |
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3.10.3 Polarization Forces |
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113 | (1) |
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3.10.4 Magnetic Energy Distribution and Magnetic Isobars |
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114 | (1) |
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115 | (4) |
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3.10.6 "Doubleness" in Current-Conducting Plasmas |
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119 | (2) |
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3.11 Magnetic Fields in Cosmic Dimensioned Plasma |
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121 | (18) |
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3.11.1 Measurement of Galactic Magnetic Fields |
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121 | (2) |
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123 | (1) |
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124 | (4) |
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3.11.4 Rotational Velocities of Spiral Galaxies |
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128 | (3) |
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3.11.5 Elliptical Galaxies |
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131 | (3) |
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3.11.6 Intergalactic Magnetic Fields |
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134 | (1) |
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134 | (5) |
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4 Electric Fields in Cosmic Plasma |
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139 | (36) |
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140 | (1) |
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4.2 Measurement of Electric Fields |
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140 | (5) |
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4.3 Magnetic Field Aligned Electric Fields |
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145 | (3) |
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4.3.1 Collisionless Thermoelectric Effect |
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145 | (1) |
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4.3.2 Magnetic Mirror Effect |
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146 | (1) |
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4.3.3 Electrostatic Shocks |
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146 | (1) |
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4.3.4 Electric Double Layers |
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147 | (1) |
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4.4 Magnetospheric Electric Fields |
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148 | (7) |
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148 | (1) |
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149 | (1) |
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150 | (1) |
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151 | (1) |
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151 | (1) |
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4.4.6 The Auroral Acceleration Region |
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151 | (2) |
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4.4.7 Global Distributions of Auroral Electric Fields |
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153 | (2) |
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4.5 Outstanding Questions |
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155 | (1) |
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4.6 Phenomena Associated with Electric Fields |
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156 | (19) |
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156 | (2) |
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4.6.2 Plasma Gun Arc Discharges |
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158 | (9) |
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4.6.3 Marklund Convection and Separation of Elements |
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167 | (1) |
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4.6.4 Particle Acceleration and Runaway |
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168 | (3) |
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4.6.5 Field-Aligned Electric Fields as the Source of Cosmic Rays |
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171 | (1) |
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172 | (3) |
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5 Double Layers in Astrophysics |
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175 | (30) |
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5.1 General Description of Double Layers |
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175 | (2) |
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5.2 The Time-Independent Double Layer |
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177 | (6) |
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5.2.1 One-Dimensional Model |
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177 | (2) |
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5.2.2 Ratio of the Current Densities |
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179 | (1) |
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179 | (1) |
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5.2.4 Structure of the Double Layer |
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180 | (1) |
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5.2.5 Kinetic Description |
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180 | (3) |
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5.3 Particle-in-Cell Simulation of Double Layers |
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183 | (4) |
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5.3.1 Simulations of the Two-Stream Instability |
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184 | (2) |
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5.3.2 Simulations of Double Layers |
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186 | (1) |
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5.4 Double Layers in Current Filaments |
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187 | (2) |
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5.5 Basic Properties of Double Layers |
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189 | (3) |
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5.5.1 Double Layers as a Surface Phenomena |
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189 | (1) |
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5.5.2 Noise and Fluctuations in Double Layers |
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190 | (1) |
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5.5.3 Exploding Double Layers |
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190 | (1) |
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5.5.4 Oblique Double Layers |
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191 | (1) |
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5.6 Examples of Cosmic Double Layers |
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192 | (13) |
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5.6.1 Double Layers in the Auroral Circuit |
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192 | (3) |
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195 | (5) |
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5.6.3 Double Radio Galaxies and Quasars |
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200 | (1) |
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5.6.4 Double Layers as a Source of Cosmic Radiation |
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200 | (1) |
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201 | (4) |
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205 | (54) |
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6.1 Theory of Radiation from an Accelerated Charge |
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206 | (18) |
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6.1.1 The Induction Fields |
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208 | (1) |
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6.1.2 The Radiation Fields |
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209 | (5) |
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6.1.3 Radiation of an Accelerated Electron in a Magnetic Field |
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214 | (4) |
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6.1.4 Angular Distribution of the Radiation |
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218 | (2) |
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6.1.5 Frequency Distribution of the Radiation |
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220 | (4) |
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224 | (3) |
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6.2.1 Polarization in the Plane of Rotation |
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224 | (2) |
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6.2.2 Polarization for Arbitrary Angles of Observation |
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226 | (1) |
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6.3 Radiation from an Ensemble of Electrons |
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227 | (5) |
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6.3.1 Velocity-Averaged Emissivity |
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227 | (2) |
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6.3.2 Emission from an Ensemble of Electrons |
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229 | (3) |
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6.4 Synchrotron Radiation from Z Pinches |
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232 | (4) |
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232 | (1) |
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233 | (1) |
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6.4.3 Morphology of the Thermal X Ray Source |
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234 | (2) |
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6.5 Particle-in-Cell Simulation of Synchrotron Processes |
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236 | (4) |
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6.5.1 Simulated Z Pinches |
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236 | (1) |
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6.5.2 Synchrotron Bursts from Simulated Z Pinches |
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237 | (1) |
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6.5.3 Synchrotron Source Radiation Patterns |
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238 | (2) |
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6.6 Synchrotron Radiation from Cosmic Sources |
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240 | (19) |
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6.6.1 Gross Radio Properties of Galaxies |
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240 | (3) |
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6.6.2 Double Radio Galaxies |
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243 | (4) |
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6.6.3 "Jets" and Superluminosity |
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247 | (2) |
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6.6.4 Quasars and Active Galaxy Nuclei |
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249 | (6) |
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6.6.5 X Ray and Gamma-Ray Sources |
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255 | (1) |
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256 | (3) |
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7 Transport of Cosmic Radiation |
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259 | (30) |
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7.1 Energy Transport in Plasma |
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260 | (7) |
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263 | (4) |
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7.1.2 Time Rate of Decay of Wave Oscillations |
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267 | (1) |
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7.2 Applications of Geometrical Optics |
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267 | (8) |
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7.2.1 Basic Principle and Limitations of Geometrical Optics |
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268 | (4) |
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7.2.2 Equation of Transfer |
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272 | (3) |
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275 | (1) |
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7.4 The Source Function and Kirchoff's Law |
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276 | (2) |
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7.4.1 Classical Limit of the Emission, Absorption, and Source Functions |
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277 | (1) |
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7.5 Self Absorption by Plasma Filaments |
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278 | (4) |
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7.6 Large-Scale, Random Magnetic Field Approximation |
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282 | (3) |
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283 | (1) |
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7.6.2 Monoenergetic Electrons |
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284 | (1) |
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7.7 Anisotropic Distribution of Velocities |
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285 | (4) |
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286 | (3) |
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8 Critical Ionization Effect in Interstellar Clouds |
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289 | (10) |
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8.1 Critical Ionization Velocity |
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289 | (1) |
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8.2 The CIV Process in Laboratory Experiments |
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289 | (1) |
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8.3 The CIV Process in Interstellar Space |
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290 | (3) |
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8.4 Neutral Hydrogen Emission Line Data |
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293 | (2) |
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8.5 The Relationship Between Observed HI Emission and CIV Data |
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295 | (4) |
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298 | (1) |
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9 Neutral Hydrogen Filaments and Dynamics of Galactic Bennett Pinches |
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299 | (12) |
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9.1 Interstellar Filaments |
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299 | (5) |
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9.2 Interstellar Filaments as Tracers of Current Flow |
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304 | (7) |
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308 | (3) |
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10 Particle-in-Cell Simulation of Cosmic Plasma |
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311 | (20) |
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10.1 "In-Situ" Observation of Cosmic Plasmas via Computer Simulation |
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311 | (1) |
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10.2 The History of Electromagnetic Particle-in-Cell Simulation |
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312 | (2) |
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10.3 The Laws of Plasma Physics |
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314 | (1) |
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10.4 Multidimensional Particle-in-Cell Simulation |
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315 | (4) |
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10.4.1 Sampling Constraints in Multidimensional Particle Codes |
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315 | (1) |
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10.4.2 Discretization in Time and Space |
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316 | (2) |
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10.4.3 Spectral Methods and Interpolation |
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318 | (1) |
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10.5 Techniques for Solution |
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319 | (4) |
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10.5.1 Leap-Frogging Particles Against Fields |
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320 | (1) |
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10.5.2 Particle Advance Algorithm |
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321 | (1) |
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10.5.3 Field Advance Algorithm |
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322 | (1) |
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10.6 Issues in Simulating Cosmic Phenomena |
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323 | (4) |
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10.6.1 Boundary Conditions |
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323 | (1) |
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324 | (1) |
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10.6.3 Compression of Time Scales |
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324 | (1) |
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325 | (2) |
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327 | (1) |
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327 | (1) |
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328 | (3) |
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329 | (2) |
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11 Further Developments in Plasma Simulation |
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331 | (10) |
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11.1 Updates in Three-Dimensional, Electromagnetic Particle Simulation Models |
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331 | (1) |
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11.2 Astrophysical Plasma and Plasma Cosmology |
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331 | (1) |
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11.3 Advancement in Particle/Field Methodology |
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332 | (1) |
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333 | (8) |
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11.4.1 Advances in the Setup of Geometries for Plasmas in Interstellar Space |
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336 | (2) |
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338 | (3) |
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12 Dynamics of Field--Aligned Currents in the Laboratory, Aurorae, and Galactic Space |
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341 | (20) |
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12.1 Formation and Dynamics of Laboratory Currents |
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341 | (6) |
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12.1.1 Formation and Evolution of Plasma Currents |
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341 | (2) |
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12.1.2 Evolution of Field-Aligned Currents |
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343 | (4) |
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12.2 Dense Plasma Focus (DPF) |
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347 | (1) |
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12.3 Evolution of Plasma Filaments via the Biot-Savart Force |
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348 | (1) |
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12.4 Birkeland's Terrella Experiments |
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349 | (3) |
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12.5 Birkeland's Trips to Egypt |
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352 | (2) |
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12.6 Macro-Terrella Experiments |
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354 | (1) |
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12.7 Properties of a Strong Aurora |
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354 | (1) |
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12.8 Temporal Occurrence and Properties of Intense Auroras |
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354 | (1) |
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12.9 The Carrington Event |
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355 | (2) |
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357 | (4) |
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358 | (3) |
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361 | (12) |
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13.1 The Cosmic--Triple--Jump |
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361 | (1) |
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13.2 Near-Earth Plasma Astrophysics |
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362 | (3) |
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362 | (1) |
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13.2.2 View of Birkeland Currents from lea and Palpa, Peru |
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363 | (1) |
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13.2.3 Mandalas or Concentric Circles in the Southern Hemisphere |
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364 | (1) |
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13.3 The Cosmic Nebula and Interstellar Clouds |
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365 | (2) |
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13.4 Galaxies in Plasma Cosmic Space |
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367 | (6) |
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13.4.1 Double Radio Galaxies |
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367 | (1) |
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368 | (2) |
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370 | (3) |
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373 | (10) |
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A.1 Cosmic Filaments as Transmission Lines |
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373 | (1) |
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A.2 Definition of the State of the Line at a Point |
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374 | (1) |
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374 | (1) |
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375 | (2) |
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375 | (1) |
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A.4.2 The Special Case of the Lossless Line |
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376 | (1) |
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A.5 Heaviside's Operational Calculus (The Laplace Transform) |
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377 | (2) |
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A.5.1 The Propagation Function |
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377 | (2) |
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A.6 Characteristic Impedance |
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379 | (1) |
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A.7 Reflection Coefficients |
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379 | (1) |
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A.8 Time-Domain Reflectometry |
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380 | (3) |
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A.8.1 Cosmic Transmission-Line |
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381 | (1) |
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382 | (1) |
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B Polarization of Electromagnetic Waves in Plasma |
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383 | (8) |
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389 | (2) |
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C Dusty and Grain Plasmas |
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391 | (6) |
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392 | (1) |
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392 | (5) |
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395 | (2) |
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D Some Useful Units and Constants |
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397 | (4) |
Index |
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401 | |