| Preface |
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xvii | |
| Acknowledgments |
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xxi | |
| A Note For Experts About Language |
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xxiii | |
| 1 Quantum Physics |
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1 | (21) |
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1 | (2) |
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How does quantum physics affect everyday life? |
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3 | (1) |
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What is a physics theory and what is the program of physics? |
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4 | (1) |
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Why do we use the word 'model' when referring to physics? |
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5 | (1) |
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Why was 2015 an especially good year for quantum physics? |
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6 | (1) |
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Why are some objects well described by classical physics models whereas others require a quantum physics description? |
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7 | (2) |
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What are the elementary entities that make up the physical universe? |
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9 | (2) |
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How is light different in classical and quantum descriptions? |
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11 | (1) |
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What are consequences of the discreteness of light detection? |
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12 | (2) |
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Is it possible to create and detect exactly one photon? |
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14 | (1) |
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How was quantum physics discovered? |
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15 | (3) |
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Do electromagnetic fields have a quantum nature? |
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18 | (2) |
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20 | (1) |
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21 | (1) |
| 2 Quantum Measurement and Its Consequences |
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22 | (32) |
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What is measurement in classical physics? |
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22 | (1) |
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What is light polarization? |
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23 | (1) |
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How do we determine or measure light polarization? |
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24 | (3) |
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What happens if the light contains a mixture of polarizations? |
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27 | (1) |
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What happens if the light is purely polarized other than H or V? |
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28 | (2) |
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What is the physics behind these polarization measurement results? |
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30 | (1) |
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What is coherence and what role does it play? |
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31 | (2) |
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Can we measure the polarization of a single photon? |
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33 | (2) |
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How can we prepare a photon with a particular pure polarization? |
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35 | (1) |
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Can you determine the polarization of a single photon by quantum measurement? |
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35 | (1) |
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What is the difference between the classical and quantum concepts of polarization of light? |
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36 | (1) |
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How do we predict probabilities for photon polarization measurements? |
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37 | (4) |
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What does it mean to make a measurement in the quantum realm? |
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41 | (1) |
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What is measurement complementarily? |
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42 | (2) |
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How can a human-scale object seem to possess definite properties if the individual quantum objects making it up do not? |
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44 | (1) |
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What do we mean by the state of an object? |
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45 | (1) |
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46 | (2) |
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Can Bob determine a quantum state experimentally that was prepared by Alice? |
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48 | (1) |
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Can Bob make copies (clones) of the state of a single photon? |
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49 | (1) |
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What is quantum coherence? |
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50 | (1) |
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What are the Guiding Principles of quantum mechanics? |
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50 | (2) |
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What does quantum mechanics really describe? |
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52 | (1) |
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53 | (1) |
| 3 Application: Quantum Data Encryption |
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54 | (16) |
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Can quantum physics be harnessed to create perfectly secure Internet communication? |
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54 | (1) |
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How does encryption keep messages secret? |
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54 | (1) |
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Can most encryption methods typically be cracked? |
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55 | (1) |
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Is there an encryption method that cannot be cracked? |
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56 | (1) |
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How is text represented using binary symbols? |
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57 | (1) |
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How is a text message encrypted and decrypted using a binary key? |
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58 | (1) |
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How can photon polarization be used for creating secure encryption keys? |
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59 | (1) |
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What physics principles underlie quantum key distribution? |
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59 | (3) |
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How does quantum key distribution work? |
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62 | (2) |
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What if an eavesdropper is present? |
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64 | (2) |
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How can Alice and Bob detect Eve's presence? |
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66 | (1) |
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What if Eve is always present? |
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67 | (2) |
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Could Eve devise other, better eavesdropping schemes? |
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69 | (1) |
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What is the current status of quantum key distribution? |
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69 | (1) |
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69 | (1) |
| 4 Quantum Behavior and Its Description |
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70 | (34) |
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How do quantum objects behave in the absence of measurement? |
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70 | (1) |
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How do electrons and pinballs behave differently? |
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70 | (2) |
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Why does the electron always go toward the goat? |
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72 | (1) |
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What happens if we modify the setup? |
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73 | (1) |
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What if we block one path? |
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74 | (1) |
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What can we conclude so far? |
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75 | (1) |
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Can we measure which way the electron travels? |
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75 | (2) |
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Why can't we apply this same reasoning to the pinball? |
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77 | (1) |
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What is unitary behavior? |
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77 | (2) |
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What other examples of unitary processes illustrate the main points? |
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79 | (1) |
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What are additional consequences of a process being unitary? |
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80 | (2) |
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Can matter behave the same as photons in the two-path experiment? |
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82 | (2) |
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Can a photon sometimes behave according to classical probability? |
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84 | (1) |
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How can we summarize the previous considerations as a principle of physics? |
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85 | (1) |
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What is a measurement in quantum physics? |
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86 | (1) |
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Can a quantum object exist in two places at once? |
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86 | (1) |
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How does quantum key distribution make use of unitary processes? |
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87 | (1) |
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How does quantum theory describe states in which two possibilities exist? |
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87 | (1) |
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How does quantum theory describe an electron having two possible paths? |
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88 | (2) |
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Can arrows be used to represent the state of macroscopic objects? |
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90 | (1) |
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How are outcome probabilities related to possibilities? |
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91 | (1) |
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How can an electron be split into two possible paths? |
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92 | (1) |
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How are state arrows used to find probabilities when path interference occurs? |
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93 | (2) |
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What happens if we alter one of the paths? |
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95 | (1) |
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How can we summarize the previous ideas in a Guiding Principle? |
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96 | (1) |
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What if we change the path length even more? |
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96 | (4) |
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Is there a general principle we can infer from this experiment? |
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100 | (1) |
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What are the take-away messages from this chapter? |
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101 | (2) |
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103 | (1) |
| 5 Application: Sensing Gravity with Quantum Interference |
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104 | (6) |
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What is the technology of sensing? |
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104 | (1) |
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Why is sensing the strength of gravity useful? |
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105 | (1) |
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How can quantum physics be used to sense gravity? |
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105 | (4) |
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How is this interferometer different from the one discussed in the previous chapter? |
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109 | (1) |
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Is this apparatus a practical gravity sensor? |
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109 | (1) |
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109 | (1) |
| 6 Quantum Possibilities and Waves |
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110 | (21) |
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How does the concept of waves enter quantum theory? |
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110 | (1) |
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110 | (3) |
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What is wave interference? |
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113 | (1) |
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What are quantum possibility waves? |
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114 | (1) |
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How does a psi wave keep track of its internal timing? |
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115 | (1) |
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What sets the cycle time or ticking rate of a particle's internal clock? |
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116 | (2) |
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How can we assemble our Guiding Principles into a coherent quantum theory? |
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118 | (1) |
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What is momentum and what can change it? |
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119 | (1) |
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120 | (1) |
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How does Schrodinger's equation describe quantum objects moving through space? |
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121 | (2) |
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How is the quantum wave related to probability? |
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123 | (1) |
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What is an example of Schrodinger's equation in action? |
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124 | (3) |
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How does a quantum particle get through locations of zero probability? |
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127 | (1) |
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What is Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle? |
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127 | (3) |
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Is it correct to say an electron is both a particle and a wave? |
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130 | (1) |
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130 | (1) |
| 7 Milestones and a Fork in the Road |
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131 | (7) |
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What aspects of quantum physics have we seen so far, and what topics should we discuss next? |
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131 | (1) |
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What milestones have we passed so far? |
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132 | (5) |
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137 | (1) |
| 8 Bell-Tests and the End of Local Realism |
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138 | (33) |
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Can experiments probe the nature of reality? |
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138 | (1) |
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What is correlation and what does it tell us? |
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139 | (1) |
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What is an example of correlated properties? |
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140 | (1) |
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What is an example of correlated behaviors? |
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141 | (1) |
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How can correlations be quantified? |
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142 | (4) |
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What is the difference between classical correlation and quantum correlation? |
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146 | (1) |
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What is realism and how can we test it experimentally? |
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147 | (1) |
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Setting the stage for experimental tests of realism |
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148 | (3) |
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What if we can make only partial measurements? |
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151 | (2) |
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What prevents communication between the two sides of the experiment? |
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153 | (3) |
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156 | (1) |
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What kinds of experiments can put an end to Local Realism? |
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156 | (7) |
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Would all states of light emitted by the atoms produce this same result? |
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163 | (1) |
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Are there possible flaws or loopholes in our arguments? |
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164 | (1) |
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What experiments have overcome the potential flaws? |
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165 | (1) |
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How can we be sure the measurement settings are independent? |
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166 | (1) |
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What did John Bell make of the results of such experiments? |
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167 | (1) |
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Does the breakdown of Local Realism mean we must abandon classical intuition and classical physics altogether? |
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168 | (1) |
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Should we abandon Local Causality or Local Realism, or both? |
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168 | (1) |
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169 | (1) |
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169 | (2) |
| 9 Quantum Entanglement and Teleportation |
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171 | (18) |
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What is quantum entanglement? |
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171 | (1) |
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How do we represent the state of a composite entity? |
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172 | (2) |
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How do we represent an entangled state of a pair of photons? |
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174 | (1) |
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How can we make the Bell State for a photon pair? |
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175 | (2) |
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How does the entangled Bell State violate Local Realism? |
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177 | (1) |
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What can you know about the constituents of a quantum composite object? |
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178 | (1) |
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What does it mean in practice to know everything there is to know about a composite quantum entity? |
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179 | (2) |
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What can we accomplish using entanglement that we couldn't without it? |
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181 | (1) |
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How does entanglement enable quantum state teleportation? |
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182 | (3) |
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Does what happens on Alice's side affect what happens on Bob's side? |
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185 | (1) |
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Is quantum teleportation instantaneous? |
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186 | (1) |
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Can a human be teleported? |
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186 | (1) |
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What is quantum state teleportation good for? |
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187 | (1) |
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188 | (1) |
| 10 Application: Quantum Computing |
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189 | (29) |
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189 | (1) |
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190 | (1) |
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191 | (3) |
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How small can a single logic gate be? |
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194 | (1) |
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Can we create computers that use intrinsically quantum behavior? |
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195 | (1) |
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196 | (1) |
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What physical principles set classical and quantum computers apart? |
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197 | (1) |
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What logic gates would quantum computers use? |
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198 | (3) |
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How would quantum computers operate? |
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201 | (3) |
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Why is factoring numbers difficult? |
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204 | (3) |
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How could quantum computers solve the factoring problem? |
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207 | (1) |
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What other computer science problems could quantum computers solve? |
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208 | (2) |
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Which physics and chemistry problems could quantum computers solve? |
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210 | (3) |
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Why are quantum computers so hard to make? |
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213 | (1) |
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What are the prospects for building quantum computers? |
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214 | (1) |
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What are the promising approaches to building quantum computers? |
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215 | (2) |
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217 | (1) |
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217 | (1) |
| 11 Energy Quantization and Atoms |
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218 | (13) |
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What is energy quantization in quantum mechanics? |
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218 | (1) |
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Why is energy quantized when a particle is confined? |
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218 | (3) |
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How is the energy of an electron in an atom quantized? |
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221 | (2) |
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Why can't the electron come to rest at the bottom of the valley? |
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223 | (1) |
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How does an atom absorb light? |
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224 | (3) |
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How does an atom emit light? |
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227 | (1) |
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What has become of the classical physics idea that an electron in an atom orbits around the nucleus? |
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228 | (2) |
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What do electron psi waves look like in three dimensions? |
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230 | (1) |
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230 | (1) |
| 12 Application: Sensing Time, Motion, and Gravity with Quantum Technology |
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231 | (22) |
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What are quantum physics-based sensing technologies? |
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231 | (1) |
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What is a scientific definition of time? |
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231 | (1) |
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232 | (1) |
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How can we make clocks identical? |
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233 | (1) |
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Why do elementary quantum objects make the most perfect clocks? |
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234 | (1) |
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Why are good clocks technologically important? |
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235 | (1) |
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How precise are today's atomic clocks? |
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236 | (1) |
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How do basic atomic clocks work? |
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237 | (2) |
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How do the most advanced atomic clocks work? |
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239 | (2) |
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What are inertial sensors? |
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241 | (1) |
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What is an accelerometer? |
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242 | (1) |
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How do conventional accelerometers work? |
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243 | (1) |
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What are accelerometers good for? |
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243 | (1) |
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What are gravimeters and what are they used for? |
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244 | (1) |
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How do conventional gravimeters work? |
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244 | (1) |
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How does a basic quantum gravimeter work? |
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245 | (1) |
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How do advanced quantum gravimeters work? |
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246 | (4) |
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Can atomic interferometers detect gravitational waves? |
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250 | (2) |
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252 | (1) |
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252 | (1) |
| 13 Quantum Fields and Their Excitations |
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253 | (21) |
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What are classical particles and fields? |
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253 | (2) |
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What quantum physics principle unifies the concepts of particles and fields? |
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255 | (2) |
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What happens if we measure a quantum field? |
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257 | (2) |
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How does the quantum theory of a grid apply to light? |
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259 | (1) |
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260 | (1) |
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261 | (1) |
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Are particles and fields aspects of the same thing? |
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262 | (1) |
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Does the unification of fields and particles also apply to electrons? |
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262 | (2) |
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Why don't we see ordinary objects appearing and disappearing? |
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264 | (1) |
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What is the universe made of? |
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264 | (1) |
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What is the quantum vacuum? |
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265 | (2) |
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How did the elementary particles get their mass? |
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267 | (1) |
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What other facts speak in favor of the existence of quantum fields? |
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268 | (3) |
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Does an understanding of quantum fields remove the mystery of Bell correlations? |
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271 | (1) |
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Does an understanding of quantum fields remove the mystery of quantum measurement? |
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271 | (1) |
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Why is the discussion of quantum fields postponed to near the end of this book? |
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272 | (1) |
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272 | (2) |
| 14 Future Directions and Remaining Questions in Quantum Science |
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274 | (29) |
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What is needed to make further progress? |
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274 | (2) |
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What don't we know about quantum technology? |
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276 | (1) |
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What don't we know about quantum physics? |
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277 | (1) |
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What do we understand about the quantum aspects of Nature? |
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277 | (1) |
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How do the classical and quantum descriptions of Nature differ? |
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278 | (1) |
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What challenges remain in understanding quantum theory? |
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279 | (1) |
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What is the measurement problem? |
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280 | (2) |
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How can an entangled state be updated? |
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282 | (2) |
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Does Heisenberg's view solve the measurement problem? |
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284 | (4) |
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How does decoherence help? |
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288 | (1) |
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Is decoherence sufficient? |
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289 | (1) |
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Is quantum probability personal? |
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290 | (3) |
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293 | (2) |
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295 | (5) |
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Why do the Bell correlations occur? |
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300 | (1) |
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301 | (2) |
| Index |
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303 | |
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