| Abbreviations and symbols |
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xxiii | |
| Glossary of key terms |
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xxv | |
| 1 Introduction |
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1 | (3) |
| 2 Spelling and pronunciation |
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4 | (17) |
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2.1 The relationship between letters and sounds |
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4 | (1) |
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2.2 The letters c, (q), g, h, i, u |
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4 | (3) |
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7 | (2) |
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9 | (1) |
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2.5 Spelling and pronunciation of 'double' consonants |
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10 | (1) |
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2.6 Lengthening of consonants at the beginning of words: rafforzamento (fono)sintattico |
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10 | (3) |
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2.7 The type Isvizzera for Svizzera |
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13 | (1) |
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2.8 Optional removal of final unstressed vowels: aver fatto vs. avere fatto, etc. |
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13 | (1) |
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14 | (3) |
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2.10 Variable primary stress |
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17 | (1) |
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2.11 Secondary stress: 'regular' and 'autonomous' |
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17 | (1) |
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18 | (1) |
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19 | (1) |
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2.14 Hyphens and syllabification |
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19 | (1) |
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20 | (1) |
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2.16 Names of letters of the alphabet |
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20 | (1) |
| 3 Nouns and adjectives |
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21 | (40) |
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3.1 Three general principles for plural formation |
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21 | (2) |
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23 | (1) |
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3.3 Exceptions to the general principles: nouns and adjectives with irregular plural endings |
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23 | (2) |
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3.4 Nouns in masculine singular -o, and feminine plural -a |
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25 | (3) |
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3.5 Other nouns which differ in gender between singular and plural |
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28 | (1) |
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3.6 Irregularities in the plural root: porco - porci, amico - amici, dio - dei, uomo - uomini, etc. |
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29 | (2) |
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3.7 Forming the plural of compound nouns: il capogruppo - i capigruppo, etc. |
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31 | (2) |
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3.8 Number mismatches between languages: English plurals for Italian singulars, and vice versa |
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33 | (1) |
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3.9 Three principles for predicting the gender of nouns |
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34 | (1) |
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3.10 Nouns (notably those in -e) whose gender is not predictable from the three general principles for gender |
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35 | (1) |
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3.11 Nouns which contradict the general principles for gender (feminine gender for males; masculine gender for females; masculines in -a; feminines in -o) |
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35 | (3) |
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3.12 Other clues to the gender of nouns (endings and suffixes) |
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38 | (1) |
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3.13 Gender of compound nouns |
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39 | (1) |
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3.14 Gender of acronyms (sigle) |
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40 | (1) |
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3.15 Gender of parts of speech other than nouns |
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40 | (1) |
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3.16 Gender of names of cities, cars, rivers, valleys and wines |
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41 | (1) |
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3.17 Other meaning differences associated with gender (trees vs. fruits; size) |
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42 | (1) |
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3.18 Other pairs of words differentiated by gender |
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43 | (1) |
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3.19 Sex: ways of expressing 'male' and 'female' in nouns denoting living beings |
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43 | (2) |
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3.20 Apparent anomalies of gender where a noun is understood but not expressed |
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45 | (1) |
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3.21 Masculine plurals of nouns denoting relatives may refer to both sexes |
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46 | (1) |
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3.22 Gender and adjectives |
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46 | (1) |
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3.23 Agreement patterns with nouns of different gender: Aveva le mani e i piedi legati 'His hands and feet were bound' |
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47 | (1) |
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3.24 Gender strictly determined by the noun |
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48 | (1) |
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3.25 The position of the adjective |
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48 | (4) |
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3.26 Adjectives are next to the noun they modify |
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52 | (1) |
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3.27 The order of adjectives in combination: molti bei libri 'many fine books', tavole rotonde verniciate or tavole rotonde e verniciate 'round painted tables', etc. |
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53 | (1) |
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3.28 The forms of preposed adjectives Bello, Buono, grande (and santo) |
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54 | (1) |
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3.29 The position of specificational adjectives: diverse idee (vs. idee diverse), etc. |
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55 | (2) |
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3.30 The type la povera donna (vs. la donna povera) |
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57 | (1) |
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3.31 The type Trovo questo libro interessante 'I find this book interesting' (vs. Trovo interessante questo libro) |
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57 | (1) |
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3.32 The 'present participle' |
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58 | (2) |
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3.33 The type 'I'm a slow eater' Sono uno che mangia lentamente, etc. |
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60 | (1) |
| 4 The articles |
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61 | (20) |
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4.1 The forms of the definite and indefinite articles |
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61 | (2) |
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4.2 Combinations of preposition + definite article |
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63 | (1) |
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4.3 Uses of the definite article |
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64 | (1) |
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4.4 The definite article with nouns having 'generic', 'universal' reference: Il vino fa male alla salute 'Wine is bad for your health', etc. |
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64 | (1) |
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4.5 The article with names of body parts and other 'inherent attributes' |
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65 | (1) |
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4.6 The article with names of places, countries and islands |
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66 | (2) |
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4.7 The article with names of cities, towns, villages, streets, rivers, lakes and mountains |
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68 | (1) |
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4.8 The article with names of persons |
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68 | (1) |
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4.9 The article with names of languages |
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69 | (1) |
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4.10 Omission of articles in verbal expressions: aver sonno, far piacere, etc. |
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70 | (1) |
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4.11 The type Faccio il falegname = 'I'm a carpenter': the construction fare + definite article + noun |
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70 | (1) |
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4.12 English genitive -'s and the Italian article: the type la casa del professore 'the teacher's house' |
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71 | (1) |
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4.13 Italian quello, questo = English 'the' |
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71 | (1) |
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4.14 Omission of the article in appositive and predicative constructions: the type E studente 'He's a student' |
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72 | (1) |
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4.15 Omission of the article in exclamations |
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73 | (1) |
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4.16 Omission of the article in lists and conjoined expressions |
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73 | (1) |
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4.17 Omission of the article in book and chapter titles |
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74 | (1) |
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4.18 Omission of the article after prepositions: the type in ufficio 'at the office' |
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74 | (1) |
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4.19 The articles frequently absent in proverbial expressions |
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75 | (1) |
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4.20 The 'partitive' type Voglio del vino, Porto dei fiori with di + article + noun and the 'zero article' type Voglio vino, Porto fiori |
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76 | (3) |
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4.21 The partitive construction di + noun phrase: the type Di rose ne ho colte tante |
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79 | (1) |
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4.22 The indefinite article |
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79 | (2) |
| 5 Demonstratives |
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81 | (12) |
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5.1 Forms of the demonstrative adjectives and pronouns: questo (and sto), quello, etc. |
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81 | (1) |
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5.2 Meaning of questo vs. quello |
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82 | (1) |
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83 | (1) |
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5.4 The demonstratives questo and quello as personal pronouns |
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83 | (1) |
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5.5 The pronouns questi 'he', 'the last mentioned [ person]', 'the latter', quegli 'he', 'the former' |
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84 | (1) |
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5.6 The type quelli del municipio = 'the town hall people' |
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84 | (1) |
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5.7 The pronouns questo, quello, cio 'this', 'that', referring to assertions/propositions |
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85 | (1) |
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5.8 The type La situazione e sempre quella 'The situation is still the same' |
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85 | (1) |
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5.9 Pronominalization of adjectives: the type quello francese = 'the French one' |
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86 | (1) |
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5.10 'Verbless' uses of questo |
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86 | (1) |
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5.11 Some idioms and expressions with questo and quello |
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87 | (1) |
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5.12 The demonstrative pronoun costui (and colui), etc. |
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87 | (1) |
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5.13 Demonstratives of kind and manner: cosi, tale |
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88 | (1) |
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5.14 'Text-internal' demonstratives: suddetto 'above mentioned', etc. |
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88 | (1) |
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5.15 Demonstratives of place: qua, la, etc. |
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89 | (1) |
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5.16 Qui, qua, li, la + locative term: li vicino 'near there', etc. Laggiu/quaggiu 'down there/here' |
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90 | (1) |
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5.17 Demonstratives of identity: l'albero stesso 'the very tree', 'the tree itself' |
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90 | (1) |
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5.18 What is the difference between stesso and reflexives? |
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90 | (1) |
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5.19 Stesso not equivalent to English '-self', where '-self' means 'as far as X is concerned' or 'on his/her/its own' |
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91 | (1) |
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5.20 The difference between stesso and uguale |
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92 | (1) |
| 6 Personal pronouns |
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93 | (37) |
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6.1 The differences between stressed and clitic ('unstressed') pronouns |
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93 | (2) |
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6.2 Forms of the clitics: mi, ti, gli, etc., vs. me, te, glie, etc.; elision; avoidance of repetition |
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95 | (3) |
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6.3 Position of clitics in relation to their verb |
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98 | (1) |
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6.4 Position of clitics in relation to constructions comprising more than one verb: L'ho lavato, Lo devo lavare, Devo lavarlo, etc. |
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99 | (1) |
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100 | (1) |
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6.6 Order of combinations of clitics |
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100 | (2) |
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6.7 The 'semi-clitic' loro: Do loro il libro vs. Gli do il libro 'I give them the book' |
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102 | (1) |
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6.8 Lo standing for clauses and phrases: Lui e italiano e lo sono anch'io = 'He's Italian and I am too' |
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103 | (1) |
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6.9 Idioms with feminine la |
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103 | (1) |
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6.10 'Locative' ci and vi '(t)here' |
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104 | (1) |
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6.11 The type Ci camminava sopra 'He was walking on it' |
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105 | (1) |
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6.12 The types c'e 'there is', ci vuole 'is necessary', ci ha 'he has' |
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105 | (1) |
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6.13 The functions of ne and restrictions on its use |
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106 | (4) |
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110 | (1) |
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6.15 The reflexive clitic as an inherent part of some intransitive verbs: the type alzarsi 'to get up' |
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110 | (3) |
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6.16 Special use of reflexive clitics with transitive verbs: the type leggersi un libro 'to read a book' |
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113 | (1) |
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6.17 Post-verbal clitics in archaic uses and set phrases: the type Vendesi |
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113 | (1) |
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6.18 The non-standard type A me mi piace |
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113 | (1) |
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6.19 Forms of the stressed pronouns |
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114 | (1) |
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6.20 Uses of the 'oblique' forms |
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114 | (1) |
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6.21 'It's me' = Sono io, 'It was them' = Erano loro, etc. |
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115 | (1) |
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6.22 Position of io combined with other subject pronouns: io e lui and lui e io = 'he and I' |
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115 | (1) |
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6.23 Use of oblique te as subject |
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116 | (1) |
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6.24 Noialtri and voialtri |
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116 | (1) |
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6.25 The type Dicevamo con Giulio 'Giulio and I were saying' |
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116 | (1) |
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6.26 Egli, esso, ella, essa, essi, esse vs. lui, lei, loro |
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116 | (2) |
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6.27 'Reciprocal' pronouns: 'They look at each other' Si guardano (l'un l'altro) |
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118 | (1) |
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6.28 Tra se, tra di loro; fra me e me 'to himself', 'amongst themselves'; 'to myself' |
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119 | (1) |
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6.29 Indefinite personal si: Oggi si va al ristorante piu spesso che in passato 'Today people go to the restaurant more often than in the past' |
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120 | (1) |
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6.30 The differences between indefinite personal si and passive si |
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121 | (2) |
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6.31 Three peculiarities of indefinite personal si in combination with other clitic pronouns: the types Si vuole farlo 'One wants to do it', Ci si lava 'One washes oneself', and Lo si prepara 'One prepares it' |
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123 | (1) |
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6.32 Indefinite personal si, the auxiliary verb, and agreement of the past participle: Si e viaggiato 'One has travelled' vs. Si e partiti 'One has left' |
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124 | (1) |
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6.33 Plural predicates of verbs with indefinite personal si: Si e allegri 'One is cheerful' (or where si is implicit: E meglio viaggiare armati 'It's better to travel armed') |
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125 | (2) |
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6.34 Other indefinite personal forms: second person forms, and third person plural forms and uno |
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127 | (1) |
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6.35 An indefinite personal as object of a verb: the type L'alcool rende tristi 'Alcohol makes one sad' |
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128 | (1) |
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6.36 Si as first person plural 'we': the type Si va 'We go' |
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128 | (1) |
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6.37 Authorial and majestic not |
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129 | (1) |
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6.38 'All of ' + pronoun: the type 'They gave it to all of us' Ce l'hanno dato a tutti |
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129 | (1) |
| 7 Relative structures |
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130 | (13) |
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7.1 Forms of the relative pronouns |
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130 | (1) |
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7.2 Impossibility of omitting relative pronouns |
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130 | (1) |
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7.3 The type Il medico di cui ti avevo parlato 'The doctor who I talked to you about' |
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130 | (1) |
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7.4 Uses and functions of relative che |
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131 | (1) |
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7.5 Il che: A relative referring to a whole clause |
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131 | (1) |
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132 | (1) |
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7.7 Che as generic, 'all purpose' relative form |
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132 | (1) |
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133 | (1) |
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7.9 Di cui = 'including', 'mentioned' |
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133 | (1) |
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7.10 Restrictions on 'preposition + cui' |
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134 | (1) |
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7.11 The possessive relative il/la/i/le cui = 'whose', 'of which' |
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134 | (1) |
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7.12 Functions of relative il quale |
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134 | (1) |
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7.13 Article + quale + noun = 'the said' |
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135 | (1) |
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7.14 Quale as relative adjective = 'of such a kind as' |
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135 | (1) |
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7.15 The type 'What/That which you say is true', 'I believe what/that which you say', 'All [ that] I do is read', 'Everything [ that] you say is a lie', 'He who hesitates is lost', etc. |
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136 | (1) |
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7.16 Quanto = 'what', 'all [ that]' |
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136 | (1) |
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7.17 'He, she, those who...', 'anybody who...': masc. colui che, femin. colei che, pl. coloro che; quello che, quella che, quelli che; chi; Chi... ' if anybody...' |
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136 | (1) |
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7.18 'No matter who', 'whoever', 'no matter what', 'whatever' chiunque, qualunque cosa, qualsiasi cosa |
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137 | (1) |
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7.19 Quanti = 'all those who', 'as many as...' |
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138 | (1) |
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7.20 Relatives referring to expressions of time, space and manner ('the day when I was born'/'the day I was born', 'the place where I live'/'the place I live', 'the way that you walk'/'the way you walk', etc.) |
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138 | (1) |
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7.21 Italian clauses with relative pronouns equivalent to English verbs in '-ing' (un progetto che offre molte possibilita = 'a project offering many possibilities') |
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138 | (1) |
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7.22 The type una lettera arrivata stamattina = una lettera che e arrivata stamattina |
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139 | (1) |
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7.23 The present participle as relative clause: le note riferentisi al suo caso = le note che si riferiscono al suo caso |
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139 | (1) |
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7.24 The type un amico che non mi ricordo dove abita |
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140 | (1) |
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7.25 The type un libro affascinante e che solleva molti problemi |
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140 | (1) |
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7.26 Repetition of the noun as a relative device |
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141 | (1) |
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7.27 'Infinitival relatives': the types Cerco un libro da leggere 'I'm looking for a book to read'; Non e un uomo da abbandonare i suoi amici 'He's not a man to abandon his friends'; Cercavo (un posto) dove mettere il libro 'I was looking for somewhere to put the book' |
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141 | (2) |
| 8 Interrogative structures |
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143 | (6) |
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8.1 Forms of the interrogative pronouns, adjectives and adverbs |
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143 | (1) |
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143 | (1) |
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8.3 Che cosa?, che?, cosa? 'what?' |
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144 | (1) |
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144 | (1) |
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144 | (1) |
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8.6 Come? 'how?', 'of what kind?' |
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145 | (1) |
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8.7 Dove? 'where?' and quando? 'when?' |
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145 | (1) |
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8.8 Quanto? 'how much?', 'to what extent?' |
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146 | (1) |
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8.9 Reinforcement of question words: '...on earth?', ever?', '...else?' |
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146 | (1) |
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8.10 Interrogative niente 'anything?', nessuno 'anybody?' |
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146 | (1) |
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8.11 The type E Mario? 'What about Mario?' |
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147 | (1) |
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8.12 Structure of interrogative sentences |
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147 | (1) |
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8.13 Interrogative se in exclamations |
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148 | (1) |
| 9 Indefinite, quantifier and negative pronouns and adjectives |
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149 | (9) |
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9.1 Uno 'one'; Ne ho uno bianco 'I have a white one' |
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149 | (1) |
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9.2 Qualcuno (more rarely qualcheduno) 'somebody', 'someone' (or 'some ones') |
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149 | (1) |
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9.3 Un tale 'somebody or other', and similar expressions |
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150 | (1) |
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9.4 Qualcosa, qualche cosa, and other expressions meaning 'something' |
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150 | (1) |
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9.5 Qualcos'altro or altro 'something else', qualcun altro or altri 'somebody else', 'another [ person]' |
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151 | (1) |
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9.6 Chi... chi... 'some people... others...' |
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152 | (1) |
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9.7 Qualche 'some', 'a few' |
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152 | (1) |
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9.8 Alcun, alcuno 'some', 'a few', 'a certain number of', 'some (of them)', 'some people' |
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152 | (2) |
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9.9 Chiunque 'anybody'; qualunque cosa, qualsiasi cosa 'anything', 'whatever'; qualunque, qualsiasi, quale si sia, quale the sia 'any', 'whichever'; tutto 'whichever', 'any' |
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154 | (1) |
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9.10 Da qualche parte 'somewhere'; da un'altra parte or altrove 'somewhere else' |
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154 | (1) |
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9.11 Negative pronouns and adjectives: nessuno 'nobody', '(not) anybody' and niente, nulla 'nothing', '(not) anything', '(not) a thing'; nessun 'no', 'not one', '(not) any' (adjective); niente 'nothing', '(not) a thing' |
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155 | (2) |
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9.12 Ogni, ciascun/ciascuno 'each', 'every'; ognuno, ciascuno (rare ciascheduno) 'each one', 'each person', 'everybody' |
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157 | (1) |
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9.13 Distributive ciascuno, l'uno, cadauno 'for each one' |
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157 | (1) |
| 10 Possessives and related constructions |
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158 | (12) |
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10.1 The types 'noun + di + noun': le idee di Einstein = 'the ideas of Einstein'/'Einstein's ideas' |
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158 | (1) |
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10.2 Non-use of the possessive adjective: the type Ho perso l'orologio 'I've lost my watch' |
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158 | (1) |
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10.3 The type 'John's eyes are green' Giovanni ha gli occhi verdi, etc. |
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159 | (1) |
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10.4 Forms of the possessive adjective |
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159 | (2) |
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10.5 The ambiguity of suo and Toro |
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161 | (1) |
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10.6 Possessive adjective + nouns denoting close relatives: 'my father' = mio padre |
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162 | (1) |
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10.7 Possessive pronouns: 'It's his' = E il suo; 'It's Maria's' = E quello di Maria |
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163 | (1) |
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10.8 The types Quella valigia e mia vs. Quella valigia e la mia |
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164 | (1) |
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10.9 Some idioms with possessive pronouns |
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164 | (1) |
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10.10 What is the difference between ne and the possessive adjectives? Ammira la sua intelligenza vs. Ne ammira l'intelligenza |
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164 | (1) |
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165 | (1) |
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10.12 Altrui = 'someone else's', 'other people's' |
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165 | (1) |
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10.13 The 'possessor' expressed as indirect object: Morde la mano al professore 'He bites the teacher's hand'; Gli morde la mano 'He bites his hand' |
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166 | (2) |
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10.14 The types Mi lavo le mani = 'I wash my hands' and Chiude gli occhi = 'He closes his eyes' |
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168 | (1) |
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10.15 A special use of the indirect object with verbs of perception and acknowledgement: Gli sentivo la voce rauca 'I could hear that his voice was hoarse', etc. |
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169 | (1) |
| 11 Prepositions |
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170 | (18) |
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11.1 Structure and syntax of prepositions: a(d), di, etc.; davanti alla scuola, verso di te, etc. |
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170 | (1) |
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11.2 'Stranding' of prepositions: A chi ti sei seduto accanto? 'Who did you sit next to?', etc. |
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171 | (1) |
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11.3 Obligatory repetition of prepositions: Mando un libro a Paolo e a Giorgio 'I send a book to Paolo and Giorgio' |
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172 | (1) |
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11.4 The type un cassetto con dentro una penna/un cassetto con una penna dentro 'a drawer with a pen in it' |
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173 | (1) |
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11.5 The multivalent preposition di |
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173 | (1) |
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11.6 Location 'at' or 'in': in, a, dentro |
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174 | (1) |
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11.7 'Between, 'among' =fra or tra |
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175 | (1) |
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11.8 Da + noun/adjective = 'at the time when X was', 'as a ...' |
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176 | (1) |
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11.9 Da as 'to' or 'at' the place where somebody works, lives or is (often equivalent to French chez) |
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176 | (1) |
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11.10 'On the one side/hand' Da un lato/una parte; 'everywhere', da ogni parte |
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176 | (1) |
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11.11 'At', 'near', 'next to', 'chez': vicino, a fianco, presso |
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176 | (1) |
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11.12 'Under', 'over'/'above', 'around', 'on', 'beyond', 'in the middle of', etc.: sotto, sopra, intorno a, su, al di la di, in mezzo a, etc. |
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176 | (1) |
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11.13 Motion 'to', 'towards': a, da, verso, in, lino a, etc. |
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177 | (1) |
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11.14 Motion 'through', 'across': attraverso, per, lungo, rasente, da |
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178 | (1) |
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11.15 Motion 'from', 'source' (place, time or state from which; origin): da, di, dentro |
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178 | (1) |
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11.16 Spatial or temporal separation/distance from some point ('from', 'since'): da |
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179 | (1) |
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11.17 Accompaniment: (insieme) con |
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179 | (1) |
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11.18 'Recipient' or 'beneficiary' (including the 'indirect object' of verbs): a, per |
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179 | (1) |
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11.19 Exclusion: tranne or tranne che, meno or meno che, salvo, eccetto, fuorche, al di fuori di 'except'; a parte 'apart from' |
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180 | (1) |
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11.20 'Concessive' prepositions: malgrado, nonostante 'despite' |
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180 | (1) |
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11.21 Cause, aim, purpose: a causa di, per via di, grazie a, per, etc. |
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180 | (1) |
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11.22 Agency, means: da, da parte di, di, tramite, mediante |
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181 | (1) |
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11.23 Content, composition, substance, smell, taste: di |
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182 | (1) |
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11.24 'By way of', 'as a' in, come; 'for' per |
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182 | (1) |
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11.25 Manner, style, decoration: a |
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182 | (1) |
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11.26 'About', 'concerning' su, riguardo a, etc.; 'according to' secondo |
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183 | (1) |
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11.27 'On behalf of dalla parte di |
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183 | (1) |
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11.28 Da with complements of characteristic ('typical of', 'characteristic of', 'associated with', 'characterized by'), or purpose ('intended for', 'to be -ed') |
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184 | (1) |
|
11.29 An important distinction between a, di and da |
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185 | (1) |
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11.30 Da in expressions of value |
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185 | (1) |
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11.31 Adjective (or noun) + da = 'to such a degree that', 'to the extent that', 'such as to ...' |
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185 | (1) |
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11.32 Time prepositions: duration per, durante; 'since' da; 'for as long as' finche/fino a che; 'in' in, tra; 'within', 'by' entro; 'before' prima di; 'after' dopo |
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185 | (3) |
| 12 Numerals and related expressions |
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188 | (12) |
|
12.1 The cardinal numerals |
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188 | (1) |
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12.2 Variant forms of the cardinals |
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189 | (1) |
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12.3 General properties of the cardinals |
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189 | (1) |
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12.4 Uno and numerals ending in -uno |
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190 | (1) |
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12.5 Uno, zero, tre, mille, milione |
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191 | (1) |
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12.6 'Both', 'all three', 'all ten', etc.; 'another three', etc. |
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191 | (1) |
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12.7 Conventions for writing numerals |
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192 | (1) |
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192 | (1) |
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12.9 Special ordinals: undecimo, decimottavo, etc. |
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193 | (1) |
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12.10 Collective and approximative numerals: 'about twenty', 'scores', 'hundreds', etc. |
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194 | (1) |
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12.11 Idiomatic quattro and due 'an indeterminate small number', mille an 'indeterminate large number' |
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195 | (1) |
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12.12 Multiplicatives: 'double', 'triple', etc. |
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195 | (1) |
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12.13 Percentages and other fractions |
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196 | (1) |
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197 | (1) |
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12.15 Groups and sets: 'There are three of them', etc. |
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197 | (1) |
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12.16 Mathematical expressions |
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198 | (1) |
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12.17 Dimensions and measurements |
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198 | (1) |
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199 | (1) |
| 13 Adverbs and adverbial constructions |
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200 | (19) |
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200 | (1) |
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13.2 Adverbs may be identical to masculine singular adjectives: parlare chiaro, etc. |
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201 | (1) |
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13.3 'Lexical adverbs': forms not predictable from the corresponding adjective (bene, male, etc.) or independent of adjectives (abbastanza, sempre, etc.) |
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202 | (1) |
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13.4 Adverb-like expressions denoting physical manner/posture ending in -oni |
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203 | (1) |
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13.5 Phrasal (especially prepositional) adverbs |
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203 | (2) |
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13.6 Other ways of forming adverbial expressions |
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205 | (1) |
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13.7 Interrogative and exclamative forms of adverbs ('How well does he sing?', 'How well he sings!', etc.) |
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206 | (1) |
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13.8 Meaning and function of adverbs |
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206 | (1) |
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13.9 Adverbs immediately precede any adjective or other adverb they modify: Canta troppo poco 'He sings too little', etc. |
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207 | (1) |
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13.10 -mente adverbs cannot be combined with each other |
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207 | (1) |
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13.11 Adverbs follow verbs |
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207 | (2) |
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13.12 Sentence adverbial expressions |
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209 | (1) |
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13.13 Adverbial uses of adjectives |
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210 | (1) |
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13.14 Adverbial phrases using imperative forms (corri corri 'at a run', etc.) |
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211 | (1) |
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13.15 Phrasal verbs with adverbs of place: andare via 'to go away', venire fuori 'to come out', etc. |
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211 | (1) |
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212 | (3) |
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13.17 Position and function of negative adverbs and adverbial phrases: mai 'never'; mica `(certainly) not' (colloquial); neanche, nemmeno, neppure '(not) even' (also 'and nor', 'and not') |
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215 | (4) |
| 14 Forms of the verb |
|
219 | (69) |
|
14.1 Some descriptive terms |
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219 | (1) |
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219 | (3) |
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14.3 Major irregular verbs |
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222 | (18) |
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14.4 How to deduce the conjugation of other irregular verbs from their infinitives |
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240 | (2) |
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14.5 'Mixed' conjugation verbs: compiere and verbs in -fare |
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242 | (1) |
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14.6 The desinences of the present tense |
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243 | (2) |
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14.7 The present tense root (vowel alternations; 'mobile diphthongs'; verbs in -gere, -cere, -scere, -gliere, etc.) |
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245 | (1) |
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246 | (2) |
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14.9 Special imperative forms |
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248 | (1) |
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14.10 Future and conditional |
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249 | (2) |
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14.11 Imperfect tense forms |
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251 | (1) |
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14.12 Forms of the passato remoto |
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252 | (3) |
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14.13 Verbs that lack a passato remoto |
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255 | (1) |
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14.14 The past participle of first and third conjugation verbs: -ato and -ito |
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256 | (1) |
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14.15 The past participle of second conjugation verbs |
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256 | (2) |
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14.16 Verbs that lack a past participle |
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258 | (1) |
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258 | (1) |
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14.18 Agreement of the verb with its subject: La gente canta 'People sing'; Io e Giulio andavamo a scuola 'Giulio and I went to school'; Tu ed io lo faremo 'You and I will do it' |
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259 | (1) |
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14.19 Analytic verb forms: 'auxiliary avere or essere + past participle' |
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260 | (1) |
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14.20 Which auxiliary: avere or essere? Auxiliary selection in transitive, reflexive and intransitive verbs |
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261 | (8) |
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14.21 Ho voluto partire or Sono voluto partire? Selection of auxiliaries with modal verbs (volere, sapere, potere, dovere) and aspectual verbs (corninciare a, continuare a, finire di) followed by an infinitive, and related phenomena of clitic placement and word-order |
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269 | (2) |
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14.22 Agreement of the past participle: Le ragazze sono arrivate ma non le ho viste, etc. |
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271 | (1) |
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14.23 Agreement of the past participle with object pronouns |
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271 | (2) |
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14.24 A special case of past participle agreement: the type I ragazzi se le sono prese |
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273 | (1) |
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14.25 Causative structures: Faccio cantare Gianni 'I make G sing', Faccio cantare la canzone a/ da Gianni 'I make G sing the song', Faccio cantare la canzone 'I have the song sung', etc. |
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274 | (1) |
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14.26 The infinitive in causative structures |
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274 | (1) |
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14.27 The subject and object of the infinitive in causatives: Faccio cantare Gianni 'I make G sing', and Faccio cantare la canzone a Gianni 'I make G sing the song'; and Faccio cantare la canzone da Gianni 'I have the song sung by Gianni |
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275 | (2) |
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14.28 The use of da instead of a to express the subject in causatives: Faccio can tare la canzone da Gianni 'I have the song sung by G' |
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277 | (1) |
|
14.29 Causatives with lasciare |
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278 | (1) |
|
14.30 Reflexive verbs and causatives |
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279 | (1) |
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280 | (1) |
|
14.32 Da and da parte di expressing the agent in passives |
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281 | (1) |
|
14.33 Only direct objects can be passivized in Italian: why a passive of the type 'The student was promised a book' is impossible in Italian (and other ways in which one might say it) |
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281 | (1) |
|
14.34 The passive auxiliaries essere, andare and venire |
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282 | (3) |
|
14.35 Venire + past participle signalling involuntary occurrence to somebody: Mi venne fatto di ... 'I chanced to ...' |
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285 | (1) |
|
14.36 Third person verbs with reflexive si as passives: the type Si riparano ombrelli 'Umbrellas are repaired' |
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285 | (3) |
| 15 Uses of the verb forms |
|
288 | (55) |
|
15.1 Future tense to express future time |
|
|
288 | (1) |
|
15.2 The future-in-the-past and the (past) conditional: 'She said he would come' = Disse che sarebbe venuto |
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288 | (1) |
|
15.3 Future after quando 'when', finche (non) 'until', (non) appena 'as soon as', dopo che 'after', una /ogni volta che 'once', subito che 'immediately', mentre 'while' |
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289 | (1) |
|
15.4 The present and imperfect tenses as expression of future time |
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290 | (1) |
|
15.5 The 'conjectural' use of future tense forms: Saranno le otto 'It must be 8', 'It's probably 8', etc. |
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290 | (1) |
|
15.6 The 'historic future' |
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|
291 | (1) |
|
15.7 Equivalents of the English types 'I'm going to do it (next week)' and 'I'm doing it (next week)' |
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292 | (1) |
|
15.8 Stare per + infinitive = 'to be about to ...' |
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292 | (1) |
|
15.9 The future vs. the subjunctive: Non credo che venga 'I don't think he's coming' vs. 'I don't think he'll come' |
|
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293 | (1) |
|
15.10 Present and imperfect tenses after da (Canta/Cantava da tre ore 'He has/had sung for three hours') |
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293 | (2) |
|
15.11 The use of the pluperfect (trapassato prossimo) and the trapassato remoto |
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295 | (2) |
|
15.12 Imperfect vs. passato remoto and passato prossimo |
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297 | (3) |
|
15.13 The 'narrative imperfect': uses of the imperfect where the passato remoto/prossimo would be expected |
|
|
300 | (1) |
|
15.14 The 'polite' imperfect |
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|
301 | (1) |
|
15.15 The 'ludic imperfect' |
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|
301 | (1) |
|
15.16 The passato remoto vs. the passato prossimo |
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|
301 | (3) |
|
15.17 The 'progressive': Sta leggendo, Va leggendo, Viene leggendo 'She's reading' |
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304 | (2) |
|
15.18 The type stare a fare 'to be doing', 'to be engaged in doing', trovarsi a fare 'to find oneself doing', etc. |
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|
306 | (1) |
|
15.19 Verbal expressions of physical stance: essere seduto, essere in piedi 'to be sitting, standing', etc. |
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307 | (1) |
|
15.20 Meaning of the gerund |
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|
307 | (3) |
|
15.21 Syntax of the gerund: why Vidi ii ragazzo uscendo dalla chiesa does NOT mean 'I saw the boy as he left the church', etc. |
|
|
310 | (1) |
|
15.22 'Clausal' uses of the past participle: the types Arrivati andarono a mangiare 'Having arrived they went to eat', Conclusa l'inchiesta, andarono a mangiare 'Having concluded the inquiry they went to eat' and Fattolo andarono a mangiare 'Having done it they went to eat' |
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311 | (1) |
|
15.23 The type Ti credevo gia partita = Credevo che fossi gia partita |
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312 | (1) |
|
15.24 The infinitive as noun: the type Il partire e sempre triste 'Leaving is always sad' |
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313 | (2) |
|
15.25 What is the subjunctive? |
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315 | (1) |
|
15.26 Contexts selecting the subjunctive |
|
|
315 | (1) |
|
15.27 English structures equivalent to the Italian subjunctive |
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|
316 | (1) |
|
15.28 The subjunctive as 'notion'/'idea': in subordinate clauses introduced by expressions of wanting, requiring, intending, ordering, fearing, permitting, preventing, hoping, etc. |
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317 | (2) |
|
15.29 The subjunctive after conjunctions expressing purpose, intention |
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319 | (1) |
|
15.30 The subjunctive after expressions such as purche 'provided that', a meno che 'unless', and other constructions introducing hypotheses (e.g., mettiamo che 'let's suppose') |
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320 | (1) |
|
15.31 The subjunctive in an apparent main clause: the types Venga domani, Magari venisse domani, etc. |
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320 | (1) |
|
15.32 The type L'idea che non lo sappia e assurda or Che non lo sappia e assurdo |
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321 | (1) |
|
15.33 The subjunctive in relative clauses: Cercava uno studente che sapesse il giapponese 'He was looking for a student who knew Japanese', etc. |
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322 | (1) |
|
15.34 The subjunctive after indefinite relatives: chiunque venga 'whoever comes', etc. |
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323 | (1) |
|
15.35 The set phrase Che io sappia 'As far as I know' |
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323 | (1) |
|
15.36 The subjunctive with negated relatives |
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324 | (1) |
|
15.37 The subjunctive in relative clauses after superlatives and other 'exclusive' structures: Era la pill bella/la prima citta che avesse mai visto 'It was the most beautiful/the first city he had ever seen' |
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|
324 | (1) |
|
15.38 The subjunctive (vs. indicative) after adjective + che. The types E ridicolo che lo dica and Che lo dica e ridicolo |
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325 | (2) |
|
15.39 The subjunctive after pub darsi che |
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327 | (1) |
|
15.40 The subjunctive after expressions of 'belief/opinion/mental impression/seeming/doubting that ...': Credo che venga; la convinzione che debbano essere fatti; Mi pare che sia vero; l'opinione che possa esistere'; Dubito che sia vero, etc. |
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327 | (2) |
|
15.41 The subjunctive after expressions of 'mental reaction': Temo che venga; la paura che possa soffrire; Sono contento che l'abbia fatto, etc. |
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329 | (1) |
|
15.42 The subjunctive in contexts where the main clause 'does not assert as a fact': Non dice che sia vero; Nega che sia vero; Sono uscita senza che mi vedessero; Non che mi abbiano visto, etc. |
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330 | (1) |
|
15.43 The subjunctive after expressions that imply that factual reality is 'immaterial': Benche sia un ladro, to ammiro 'Although he's a thief, I admire him'; Che venga o no, non to aspettera 'Whether he's coming or not, I won't wait for him', etc. The type per Bello che fosse . . . 'however beautiful it was ...' |
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331 | (1) |
|
15.44 The subjunctive after 'noun + che': e una vergogna che, il fatto che, etc. |
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332 | (1) |
|
15.45 The subjunctive in indirect questions: the type Non so se siano qua, Chiedeva chi fosse, etc. |
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333 | (1) |
|
15.46 The subjunctive after time conjunctions: quando, prima che, finche, etc. |
|
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334 | (1) |
|
15.47 The subjunctive after verbs of happening: Succede/Capita/ Avviene/Accade che venga, etc. |
|
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335 | (1) |
|
15.48 Tense and the subjunctive: Voglio che venga; Vorrei che venisse; Volevo che venisse, etc. |
|
|
335 | (1) |
|
15.49 Equivalents of English 'will', 'would', 'shall', 'should' |
|
|
336 | (1) |
|
15.50 Equivalents of 'must', 'must have'; 'should', 'should have'; 'ought to', 'ought to have', etc. |
|
|
337 | (1) |
|
15.51 Equivalents of 'can'/'could', 'may'/'might' |
|
|
338 | (1) |
|
15.52 'May not' , 'might not' and 'cannot' |
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|
339 | (1) |
|
15.53 The tense ambiguity of 'could' and 'might' |
|
|
339 | (1) |
|
15.54 Different functions of 'might have', 'could have' and 'may have', 'can have' |
|
|
340 | (1) |
|
15.55 'Can', 'could' ambiguous between 'be possible' potere, and 'know how' sapere |
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|
341 | (1) |
|
15.56 'Can' in verbs of perception, understanding, finding: Non lo vedo 'I can't see it' |
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|
341 | (1) |
|
15.57 'Can' = 'succeed in', 'manage to' |
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|
342 | (1) |
| 16 Comparative, superlative and related constructions |
|
343 | (13) |
|
16.1 Forming the comparative and superlative of adjectives and adverbs: 'more', 'most' = pill, 'less', 'least' = meno |
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|
343 | (1) |
|
16.2 Special forms of comparatives and superlatives: migliore, meglio 'better '/'best', peggiore, peggio 'worse'/'worst', etc. |
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|
344 | (1) |
|
16.3 Comparative quantifiers: pill/meno mete 'more/fewer apples', etc.; Le mele costano (di) pila (di) meno 'Apples cost more/less', etc. |
|
|
345 | (1) |
|
16.4 The type otto euro in pill '8 euros more'/'an extra 8euros' |
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|
345 | (1) |
|
16.5 The type cambiare in meglio /peggio 'to change for the better/worse' |
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|
345 | (1) |
|
16.6 How to say 'I had better ...', etc. |
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|
345 | (1) |
|
16.7 'Than' in comparatives: the comparators che and di before nouns, adjectives, adverbs and prepositions |
|
|
346 | (2) |
|
16.8 Comparatives where the second element is a verb phrase (1): 'New York is bigger than I thought' = New York e piii grande di quanto pensassi, etc. |
|
|
348 | (1) |
|
16.9 Comparatives where the second element is a verb phrase (2): 'New York is bigger than I thought' = New York e pili grande che non pensassi, etc. |
|
|
349 | (1) |
|
16.10 More about redundant non in comparative constructions: Era pill alto di quanto non credessi 'He was taller than I thought', E pill rosso che (non) marrone 'It's more red than brown' |
|
|
349 | (1) |
|
16.11 'Rather than' = pilL che (non) or piuttosto che (non) |
|
|
349 | (1) |
|
16.12 How to say 'I'd rather', etc. |
|
|
350 | (1) |
|
16.13 The expression of 'in' in superlative structures: l'edificio pill alto del mondo = 'the tallest building in the world', etc. |
|
|
350 | (1) |
|
16.14 The type un edificio dei pill splendidi = 'a most splendid building' |
|
|
350 | (1) |
|
16.15 Adjectives with the 'elative' ending -issimo: 'very', 'extremely', 'highly', 'most'...; and pessimo 'very bad', ottimo 'very good', minimo 'minimal', 'very small'; massimo 'maximum' |
|
|
350 | (2) |
|
16.16 Adverbs with -issimo: benissimo, etc. |
|
|
352 | (1) |
|
16.17 Nouns with -issimo: la finalissima, etc. |
|
|
352 | (1) |
|
16.18 Comparisons of equality ('as as'; 'as much ... as'; 'as many ... as') |
|
|
353 | (1) |
|
16.19 'The same as ...' = lo stesso di/che |
|
|
354 | (1) |
|
16.20 'The more ..., the more'; 'the less ..., the less' |
|
|
354 | (1) |
|
16.21 'More and more .../less and less ...' = sempre piii/meno |
|
|
354 | (1) |
|
16.22 Repetition (reduplication) of the adjective or adverb as an intensifier: the type rosso rosso 'very very/really/ever so/ extremely red' |
|
|
355 | (1) |
| 17 Aspects of sentence structure |
|
356 | (47) |
|
17.1 Basic organization of declarative sentences: Paolo mangia la came 'P eats the meat', E arrivato Paolo 'P has arrived', etc. |
|
|
356 | (3) |
|
17.2 Left-marked word order: Un cafe lo prenderei proprio volentieri! 'A coffee I'd just love', etc. |
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359 | (3) |
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17.3 Cleft sentences: E stato Paolo a dirlo 'It was Paul who said it'; E a Roma che andrei proprio volentieri! 'It's Rome I'd really like to go to!' |
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362 | (2) |
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17.4 The 'hanging theme' (II nostro professore, gli dobbiamo moltissimo '[ As for] our teacher, we owe him a lot') |
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364 | (1) |
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17.5 The type Dormire, dormo poco |
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365 | (1) |
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17.6 Right-marked word order: Lo prenderei proprio volentieri, un cafe 'I'd really like to have a coffee' |
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365 | (1) |
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17.7 Subordinate clauses: the subordination marker che. So che viene 'I know that he's coming', etc. |
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365 | (1) |
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17.8 Infinitives in subordinate clauses: Voglio partire 'I want to leave', Gli ordino di partire 'I order him to leave' |
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366 | (1) |
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17.9 Verbs taking the infinitive without a preposition: Devo farlo 'I must do it', etc. |
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367 | (2) |
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17.10 Verbs which take di + infinitive in the subordinate clause, when the subject of main verb and subordinate verb are coreferential. The type Dice di essere stanco 'He says he's tired' vs. Dice che sua sorella e stanca 'He says that his sister's tired' |
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369 | (3) |
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17.11 Verbs of asking, permitting, ordering, forbidding, preventing with di + infinitive: the type Chiedo di entrare 'I ask to come in' vs. Chiedo che entri 'I ask him to come in' |
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372 | (2) |
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17.12 Verbs of stopping/ceasing some activity usually take di + infinitive: Smette di fumare 'He stops smoking', etc. |
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374 | (1) |
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17.13 Verbs taking a + infinitive: the type Continua a fumare 'He continues to smoke', etc. |
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375 | (3) |
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17.14 A special use of a + infinitive: the type e Mario a cantare 'and then Mario started singing' |
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378 | (1) |
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17.15 Verbs taking dal or nel + infinitive: Lo scoraggia dal farlo 'He discourages him from doing it', Il problema sta nel trovarlo 'The problem lies in finding him', etc. |
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379 | (1) |
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17.16 Purpose and consecutive clauses introduced by per and da + infinitive: the types L'ha facto per avvertirti 'He did it (in order) to warn you', Bevve tan to da ubriacarsi 'He drank so much that he got drunk' |
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379 | (2) |
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17.17 Subordination with verbs of seeming and appearing: Sembra che cads, Sembra cadere, Gli sembra di cadere, etc. |
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381 | (1) |
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17.18 The bare infinitive with subject noun after verbs of asserting and believing: Crede essere il Barolo superiore a tutti gli altri vini 'He believes Barolo to be superior to all other wines', etc. |
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382 | (1) |
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17.19 Adjectives as subordinate clauses: the type 'I believed him innocent' Lo credevo innocente |
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382 | (1) |
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17.20 Adjectives as subordinate clauses: the type 'He made the document public' Ha reso pubblico il documento and 'He dyed the sheet red' Ha tinto il lenzuolo di rosso, etc. |
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382 | (2) |
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17.21 Adjective + preposition + infinitive: the type Sono felice di vederti 'I'm happy to see you', Sono fortunata a incontrarti 'I'm lucky to meet you', etc. |
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384 | (1) |
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17.22 Adjectives taking di + infinitive in the subordinate clause |
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384 | (2) |
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17.23 Adjectives taking a/in/per/da + infinitive |
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386 | (3) |
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17.24 The type Bello da vedere/a vedersi/a vedere 'beautiful to see', facile da dire/a dirsi/a dire 'easy to say' |
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389 | (1) |
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17.25 Other expressions with da + infinitive: avere da, esserci da |
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390 | (1) |
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17.26 Di si and di no as subordinate clauses: Penso di si 'I think so' and Penso di no 'I don't think so' |
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390 | (1) |
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17.27 Forms of the infinitive in subordinate clauses: Credo di farlo vs. Credo di averlo fatto |
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390 | (1) |
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17.28 Perceptual structures: the types Vedo Gianni scendere dal treno 'I see G get off the train', Sento Chiara chiamare Riccardo 'I hear C call R', Guardo aprire il regalo a Maria 'I watch M open the parcel', Sento criticare il professore 'I hear the teacher criticized', Sento Gianni a cantare 'I hear G singing', etc. |
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391 | (4) |
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17.29 Perception verbs + finite structure: the 'pseudo-relative' type Vedo Gianni che gioca a tennis 'I see G playing tennis' (vs. Vedo che Gianni gioca a tennis 'I see that G is playing tennis') |
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395 | (2) |
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17.30 The type Ecco arrivare Gianni or Ecco Gianni che arriva 'Here's G arriving' |
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397 | (1) |
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17.31 The major types of 'conditional' sentences: Se viene lo vedrai 'If he comes you'll see him', Se fosse venuto to avresti visto 'If he had come you would have seen him', etc. |
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397 | (2) |
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399 | (1) |
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17.33 The type Se venivi lo vedevi 'If you had come, you would have seen him'; Bastava dirlo 'It would have been enough to say so' |
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400 | (1) |
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17.34 Se = 'despite the fact that', 'even though', 'whenever': the type Se lo vide, non me l'ha detto 'If he saw him, he never told me', etc. |
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400 | (1) |
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17.35 The type Se fosse venuto, lo avrebbe visto as a 'future-in-the-past': Sapevo che se fosse venuto, lo avrebbe visto 'I knew that if he came, he would see it' |
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401 | (1) |
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17.36 Counterfactual expressions without se: venisse domani, etc. |
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401 | (1) |
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17.37 The type a pensarci 'if you think about it' |
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401 | (1) |
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17.38 Conditional sentences using the imperative + e or o: the type Stai zitto o ti picchio 'Shut up or I'll hit you' |
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402 | (1) |
| 18 Negative constructions |
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403 | (7) |
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18.1 Simple negation with non |
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403 | (1) |
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18.2 The types Vieni o no? 'Are you coming or not?', Studenti o no/non 'Students or non-students', etc. |
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404 | (1) |
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18.3 The uses and position of the colloquial negator mica (and punto) |
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405 | (2) |
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18.4 Non as a reinforcing element in exclamations and questions |
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407 | (1) |
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18.5 The type Nessuno viene vs. Non viene nessuno, etc. Negative pronouns, adjectives, adverbs and conjunctions before the verb vs. negative pronouns, adjectives, adverbs and conjunctions after the verb |
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407 | (1) |
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18.6 'No longer' non ... pia |
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408 | (2) |
| 19 Conjunctions and discourse markers |
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410 | (31) |
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410 | (1) |
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19.2 'Both ... and' e e, etc. |
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411 | (1) |
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19.3 'Also', 'too', 'as well', 'even' anche and pure |
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411 | (1) |
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19.4 'Not to mention' nonche |
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412 | (1) |
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19.5 'Neither ... nor' ne ne (neppure) |
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412 | (1) |
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19.6 'Or' o, oppure, ovvero, etc. |
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413 | (1) |
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19.7 'Either... or' o...o |
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414 | (1) |
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19.8 Adversative conjunctions: ma 'but', eppure 'yet', bensi 'but', invece 'however', nondimeno 'none the less', peraltro 'however', mentre 'while', piuttosto 'rather', sen(n)onche 'except that', tuttavia 'however', anzi 'rather', peril 'but'/'however' |
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414 | (3) |
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19.9 Declarative conjunctions: cioe, vale a dire, infatti, invero |
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417 | (2) |
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19.10 Conclusive conjunctions: dunque, quindi, percia, pertanto, per cui 'therefore'; ebbene 'so'; ora 'now'; allora 'then'; ecco che 'and so' |
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419 | (3) |
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19.11 Alternative expressions for se 'if': posto che, supponendo/supposto che, ammesso che, casomai, nel caso che/in cui, nell'eventualita che, qualora |
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422 | (3) |
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19.12 Restrictive conditional conjunctions: purche 'provided', a condizione che, a patto che, 'on condition that', sempre che 'always assuming' |
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425 | (1) |
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19.13 Causal conjunctions: perche, poiche, giacche, siccome, in quanto, che, considerato/visto/dato/dal momento che, per il fatto/motivo/la ragione che, etc. |
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426 | (2) |
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19.14 Purpose conjunctions: perche, acciocche, affinche (per or a + infinitive) |
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428 | (1) |
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19.15 Consecutive per and salvo + infinitive '(only) to': the type Ricevette il premio Nobel, per morire tre giorni dopo. 'He received the Nobel prize, only to die three days later'. |
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429 | (1) |
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19.16 Concessive conjunctions and phrases: benche, sebbene, ancorche, per quanto, quantunque, malgrado che, nonostante che, pur 'although', 'despite the fact that', seppure, anche se, 'even if', etc. |
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430 | (1) |
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19.17 Result conjunctions and phrases: da + infinitive, cosi ... che, tan to che, di maniera (di modo) che, al punto, a tal punto che, talmente che + indicative |
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431 | (2) |
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19.18 Time conjunctions: 'when' quando, 'whenever' ogni volta che, se, 'while', 'as' mentre, man mono che, 'until' finche/fino a che, 'before' prima che/di, 'after' dopo che/(di), 'as soon as' appena, subito che, 'since' da quando |
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433 | (1) |
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434 | (4) |
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438 | (3) |
| 20 Word derivation |
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441 | (9) |
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20.1 Word derivation: compounds and conversion |
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441 | (1) |
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20.2 Affixation: prefixes and suffixes |
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442 | (3) |
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20.3 Feminine past participles in noun-formation, and the suffix -ata |
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445 | (1) |
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445 | (4) |
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449 | (1) |
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450 | (1) |
| 21.1 Telling the time |
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450 | (8) |
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21.2 Periods of the day, days, months, seasons, years and centuries |
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451 | (2) |
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21.3 Expressions of duration in -ata: giornata, serata, etc. |
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453 | (1) |
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454 | (1) |
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454 | (1) |
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21.6 Expressions of frequency: 'twice a day', 'every five minutes', etc. |
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455 | (1) |
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21.7 Time adjectives: 'last' scorso, 'next' prossimo, etc.; 'the late ...' il fu; 'the then' l'allora |
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456 | (2) |
| 22 Forms of address |
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458 | (8) |
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22.1 Importance of selecting the correct address form |
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458 | (1) |
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22.2 Forms and syntax of pronouns and verb forms used in address |
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458 | (2) |
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22.3 Uses of the address forms tu/Lei/voi/Ella |
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460 | (2) |
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462 | (1) |
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22.5 Voi and Loro as plural address forms |
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463 | (1) |
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22.6 Other address forms: la Signoria Vostra, etc. |
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464 | (1) |
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22.7 Salutations, titles and address forms: Ciao, bello! vs. Buonasera, signore |
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464 | (2) |
| 23 Register differences in modem Italian grammar |
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466 | (5) |
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23.1 Written and formal constructions |
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467 | (2) |
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23.2 Spoken and informal constructions |
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469 | (2) |
| 24 Bibliography and references |
|
471 | (2) |
| Index |
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473 | |
