| About the Author |
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xiii | |
| Acknowledgments |
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xv | |
| Preface |
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xvii | |
| To the Student---How to Use SPSS With This Book |
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xxv | |
| P.1 Overview of SPSS: What Are You Looking At? |
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xxv | |
| P.2 Preview of SPSS in Focus |
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xxix | |
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SECTION I SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY |
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1 | (80) |
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Chapter 1 Introduction to Scientific Thinking |
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3 | (24) |
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1.1 Science as a Method of Knowing |
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4 | (1) |
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1.2 The Scientific Method |
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4 | (9) |
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1.3 Other Methods of Knowing |
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13 | (3) |
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16 | (2) |
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1.5 Approaches in Acquiring Knowledge |
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18 | (2) |
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1.6 Distinguishing Science From Pseudoscience |
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20 | (7) |
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Chapter 2 Generating Testable Ideas |
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27 | (26) |
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2.1 Generating Interesting and Novel Ideas |
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28 | (1) |
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2.2 Converting Ideas to Hypotheses and Theories |
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29 | (4) |
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2.3 Developing Your Idea: Deduction and Induction |
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33 | (2) |
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2.4 Performing a Literature Review |
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35 | (5) |
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2.5 Ethics in Focus: Giving Proper Credit |
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40 | (2) |
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2.6 The "3 Cs" of an Effective Literature Review |
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42 | (3) |
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2.7 Testing Your Idea: Confirmation and Disconfirmation |
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45 | (2) |
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2.8 Ethics in Focus: Publication Bias |
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47 | (6) |
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Chapter 3 Research Ethics |
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53 | (28) |
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3.1 Ethics in Behavioral Research |
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54 | (1) |
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3.2 The Need for Ethics Committees in Research: A Historical Synopsis |
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54 | (6) |
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3.3 Ethics in Focus: Examples From Psychology |
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60 | (3) |
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3.4 Human Participant Research: IRBs and the APA Code of Conduct |
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63 | (8) |
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3.5 Ethics in Focus: Anonymity and Confidentiality |
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71 | (1) |
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3.6 Animal Subject Research: IACUCs and the APA Code of Conduct |
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72 | (1) |
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3.7 Additional Ethical Considerations: Scientific Integrity |
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73 | (8) |
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SECTION II DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES, SELECTING SAMPLES, AND CHOOSING AN APPROPRIATE RESEARCH DESIGN |
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81 | (88) |
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Chapter 4 Identifying Scientific Variables |
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83 | (30) |
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4.1 Criteria for Defining and Measuring Variables |
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84 | (1) |
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4.2 Constructs and Operational Definitions |
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85 | (2) |
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87 | (2) |
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4.4 Scales of Measurement |
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89 | (4) |
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4.5 Reliability of a Measurement |
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93 | (3) |
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4.6 Validity of a Measurement |
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96 | (3) |
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4.7 Selecting a Measurement Procedure |
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99 | (4) |
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4.8 Ethics in Focus: Replication as a Gauge for Fraud? |
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103 | (1) |
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4.9 SPSS in Focus: Entering and Coding Data |
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103 | (10) |
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Chapter 5 Sampling From Populations |
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113 | (26) |
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5.1 Why Do Researchers Select Samples? |
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114 | (1) |
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5.2 Subjects, Participants, and Sampling Methods |
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114 | (3) |
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5.3 Methods of Sampling: Nonprobability Sampling |
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117 | (2) |
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5.4 Methods of Sampling: Probability Sampling |
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119 | (7) |
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5.5 Sampling Error and Standard Error of the Mean |
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126 | (2) |
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5.6 SPSS in Focus: Estimating the Standard Error of the Mean |
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128 | (1) |
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5.7 Potential Biases in Sampling |
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129 | (1) |
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5.8 Ethics in Focus: Participant Pools |
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130 | (1) |
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5.9 SPSS in Focus: Identifying New Populations Using the One-Sample t Test |
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131 | (8) |
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Chapter 6 Choosing a Research Design |
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139 | (30) |
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6.1 Designing a Study to Answer a Question |
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140 | (1) |
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6.2 Categories of Research Design |
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141 | (6) |
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6.3 Internal and External Validity |
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147 | (1) |
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6.4 Demonstrating Cause in an Experiment |
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148 | (5) |
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6.5 Ethics in Focus: Beneficence and Random Assignment |
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153 | (1) |
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6.6 Threats to the Internal Validity of a Research Study |
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154 | (6) |
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6.7 Threats to the External Validity of a Research Study |
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160 | (2) |
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6.8 External Validity, Experimentation, and Realism |
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162 | (1) |
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6.9 A Final Thought on Validity and Choosing a Research Design |
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163 | (6) |
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SECTION III NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS |
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169 | (68) |
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Chapter 7 Naturalistic, Qualitative, and Existing Data Research Designs |
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171 | (32) |
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172 | (1) |
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7.1 An Overview of Naturalistic Observation |
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172 | (1) |
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7.2 The Research Setting: Natural and Contrived Settings |
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173 | (1) |
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7.3 Techniques for Conducting Naturalistic Observation |
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174 | (5) |
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7.4 Ethics in Focus: Influencing Participant Behavior |
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179 | (1) |
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180 | (1) |
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7.5 An Overview of Qualitative Designs |
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180 | (3) |
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7.6 Qualitative Research Designs |
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183 | (6) |
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7.7 Ethics in Focus: Anonymity in Qualitative Research |
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189 | (1) |
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190 | (1) |
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7.8 An Overview of Existing Data Designs |
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190 | (1) |
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7.9 Existing Data Designs |
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191 | (5) |
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7.10 Ethics in Focus: Existing Data and Experimenter Bias |
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196 | (7) |
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Chapter 8 Survey and Correlational Research Designs |
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203 | (34) |
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204 | (1) |
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8.1 An Overview of Survey Designs |
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204 | (1) |
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8.2 Types of Survey Items |
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204 | (4) |
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8.3 Rules for Writing Survey Items |
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208 | (5) |
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8.4 Administering Surveys |
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213 | (2) |
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8.5 Surveys, Sampling, and Nonresponse Bias |
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215 | (1) |
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8.6 Ethics in Focus: Handling and Administering Surveys |
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216 | (1) |
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217 | (1) |
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8.7 The Structure of Correlational Designs |
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217 | (1) |
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8.8 Describing the Relationship Between Variables |
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218 | (5) |
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8.9 Limitations in Interpretation |
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223 | (3) |
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8.10 Correlation, Regression, and Prediction |
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226 | (2) |
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8.11 SPSS in Focus: Correlation and Linear Regression |
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228 | (9) |
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SECTION IV QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS |
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237 | (128) |
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Chapter 9 Quasi-Experimental and Single-Case Experimental Designs |
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239 | (34) |
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Quasi-Experimental Designs |
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240 | (1) |
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9.1 An Overview of Quasi-Experimental Designs |
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240 | (1) |
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9.2 Quasi-Experimental Design: One-Group Designs |
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241 | (2) |
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9.3 Quasi-Experimental Design: Nonequivalent Control Group Designs |
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243 | (3) |
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9.4 Quasi-Experimental Design: Time Series Designs |
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246 | (4) |
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9.5 Quasi-Experimental Design: Developmental Designs |
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250 | (5) |
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9.6 Ethics in Focus: Development and Aging |
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255 | (1) |
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Single-Case Experimental Designs |
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256 | (1) |
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9.7 An Overview of Single-Case Designs |
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256 | (1) |
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9.8 Single-Case Baseline-Phase Designs |
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257 | (6) |
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9.9 Validity, Stability, Magnitude, and Generality |
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263 | (2) |
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9.10 Ethics in Focus: The Ethics of Innovation |
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265 | (8) |
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Chapter 10 Between-Subjects Experimental Designs |
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273 | (32) |
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10.1 Conducting Experiments: Between-Subjects Design |
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274 | (1) |
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10.2 Experimental Versus Control Group |
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275 | (1) |
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10.3 Manipulation and the Independent Variable |
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276 | (4) |
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10.4 Variability and the Independent Variable |
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280 | (3) |
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10.5 Ethics in Focus: The Accountability of Manipulation |
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283 | (1) |
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10.6 Comparing Two Independent Samples |
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284 | (2) |
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10.7 SPSS in Focus: Two-Independent-Sample t Test |
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286 | (3) |
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10.8 Comparing Two or More Independent Samples |
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289 | (3) |
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10.9 SPSS in Focus: One-Way Between-Subjects ANOVA |
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292 | (4) |
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10.10 Measuring the Dependent Variable |
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296 | (2) |
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10.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Between-Subjects Design |
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298 | (7) |
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Chapter 11 Within-Subjects Experimental Designs |
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305 | (30) |
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11.1 Conducting Experiments: Within-Subjects Design |
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306 | (1) |
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11.2 Controlling Time-Related Factors |
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307 | (5) |
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11.3 Ethics in Focus: Minimizing Participant Fatigue |
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312 | (1) |
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11.4 Individual Differences and Variability |
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313 | (2) |
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11.5 Comparing Two Related Samples |
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315 | (4) |
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11.6 SPSS in Focus: Related-Samples t Test |
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319 | (1) |
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11.7 Comparing Two or More Related Samples |
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320 | (3) |
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11.8 SPSS in Focus: One-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA |
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323 | (3) |
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11.9 An Alternative to Pre-Post Designs: Solomon Four-Group Design |
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326 | (2) |
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11.10 Comparing Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Designs |
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328 | (7) |
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Chapter 12 Factorial Experimental Designs |
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335 | (30) |
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12.1 Testing Multiple Factors in the Same Experiment |
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336 | (1) |
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12.2 Selecting Samples for a Factorial Design in Experimentation |
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337 | (1) |
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12.3 Types of Factorial Designs |
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338 | (3) |
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12.4 Ethics in Focus: Participant Fatigue and Factorial Designs |
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341 | (1) |
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12.5 Main Effects and Interactions |
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342 | (5) |
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12.6 Identifying Main Effects and Interactions in a Graph |
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347 | (3) |
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12.7 Including Quasi-Independent Factors in an Experiment |
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350 | (1) |
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12.8 Reasons for Including Two or More Factors in an Experiment |
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351 | (3) |
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12.9 Higher-Order Factorial Designs |
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354 | (2) |
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12.10 SPSS in Focus: General Instructions for Conducting a Factorial ANOVA |
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356 | (9) |
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SECTION V ANALYZING, INTERPRETING, AND COMMUNICATING RESEARCH DATA |
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365 | (170) |
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Chapter 13 Analysis and Interpretation: Exposition of Data |
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367 | (30) |
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13.1 Descriptive Statistics: Why Summarize Data? |
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368 | (2) |
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13.2 Frequency Distributions: Tables and Graphs |
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370 | (2) |
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13.3 Measures of Central Tendency |
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372 | (4) |
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13.4 Measures of Variability |
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376 | (3) |
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13.5 SPSS in Focus: Central Tendency and Variability |
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379 | (2) |
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13.6 Graphing Means and Correlations |
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381 | (3) |
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13.7 Using Correlation to Describe Reliability |
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384 | (2) |
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13.8 SPSS in Focus: Cronbach's Alpha and Cohen's Kappa |
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386 | (4) |
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13.9 Ethics in Focus: Deception Due to the Distortion of Data |
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390 | (7) |
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Chapter 14 Analysis and Interpretation: Making Decisions About Data |
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397 | (28) |
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14.1 Inferential Statistics: What Are We Making Inferences About? |
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398 | (3) |
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14.2 Types of Error and Power |
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401 | (2) |
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14.3 Parametric Tests: Applying the Decision Tree |
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403 | (2) |
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14.4 Nonparametric Tests: Applying the Decision Tree |
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405 | (4) |
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14.5 SPSS in Focus: The Chi-Square Tests |
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409 | (3) |
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14.6 Effect Size: How Big Is an Effect in the Population? |
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412 | (4) |
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14.7 Estimation: What Are the Possible Values of a Parameter? |
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416 | (1) |
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14.8 Confidence Intervals, Significance, and Effect Size |
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416 | (2) |
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14.9 Issues for Interpretation: Precision and Certainty |
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418 | (1) |
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14.10 Ethics in Focus: Full Disclosure of Data |
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419 | (6) |
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Chapter 15 Communicating Research: Preparing Manuscripts, Posters, and Talks |
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425 | (110) |
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15.1 Elements of Communication |
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426 | (4) |
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15.2 Writing a Manuscript: Writing Style and Language |
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430 | (3) |
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15.3 Elements of an APA-Style Manuscript |
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433 | (11) |
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444 | (1) |
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15.5 Reporting Observations in Qualitative Research |
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445 | (1) |
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15.6 Ethics in Focus: Credit and Authorship |
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446 | (1) |
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447 | (1) |
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15.8 Giving a Professional Talk |
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448 | (7) |
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Appendix A APA-Style Writing, Sample Manuscript, and Posters |
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455 | (52) |
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A.1 Essentials for Writing APA-Style Research Papers |
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455 | (6) |
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A.2 Grammar, Punctuation, and Spelling (GPS) Writing Guide |
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461 | (26) |
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A.3 Sample APA-Style Manuscript |
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487 | (16) |
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A.4 Poster Template and Sample Poster |
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503 | (4) |
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Appendix B Instructions for Randomizing and Counterbalancing |
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507 | (8) |
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507 | (5) |
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B.2 Constructing a Latin Square |
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512 | (3) |
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Appendix C SPSS General Instructions Guide and Statistical Tables |
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515 | (20) |
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C.1 General Instructions Guide for Using SPSS |
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515 | (11) |
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526 | (9) |
| Glossary |
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535 | (14) |
| References |
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549 | (14) |
| Index |
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563 | |
