Acknowledgements |
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xiii | |
Introduction |
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xv | |
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1 | (18) |
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Objectives of This Chapter |
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1 | (1) |
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1 | (2) |
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1.2 The Case of the Missing Lines |
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3 | (1) |
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1.3 The Strange Behavior of Spectra from Gases and Metals |
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4 | (1) |
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1.4 The Classifications of Basic Elements |
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5 | (1) |
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1.5 The Hydrogen Spectrum Lines |
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5 | (2) |
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7 | (1) |
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8 | (2) |
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10 | (3) |
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1.9 Summary and Conclusions |
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13 | (1) |
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Appendix 1.1 Some Details of the Bohr Model |
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14 | (2) |
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Appendix 1.2 Semiconductor Materials |
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16 | (1) |
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Appendix 1.3 Calculating the Rydberg Constant |
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16 | (3) |
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19 | (16) |
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Objectives of This Chapter |
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19 | (1) |
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2.1 Bringing Atoms Together |
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19 | (3) |
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22 | (1) |
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23 | (1) |
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24 | (3) |
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2.5 Digression: Water Analogy |
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27 | (1) |
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2.6 The Mobility of Charges |
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27 | (1) |
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2.7 Summary and Conclusions |
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28 | (1) |
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Appendix 2.1 Energy Gap in Semiconductors |
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29 | (1) |
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Appendix 2.2 Number of Electrons and the Fermi Function |
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29 | (6) |
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3 Types of Semiconductors |
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35 | (16) |
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Objectives of This Chapter |
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35 | (1) |
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3.1 Semiconductor Materials |
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35 | (1) |
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3.2 Short Summary of Semiconductor Materials |
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36 | (3) |
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36 | (1) |
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37 | (2) |
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39 | (1) |
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3.3 Intrinsic Semiconductors |
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39 | (1) |
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3.4 Doped Semiconductors: n-Type |
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40 | (3) |
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3.5 Doped Semiconductors: p-Type |
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43 | (2) |
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3.6 Additional Considerations |
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45 | (2) |
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3.7 Summary and Conclusions |
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47 | (1) |
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Appendix 3.1 The Fermi Levels in Doped Semiconductors |
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48 | (2) |
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Appendix 3.2 Why All Donor Electrons go to the Conduction Band |
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50 | (1) |
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51 | (18) |
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Objectives of This Chapter |
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51 | (1) |
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4.1 What is Infrared Radiation? |
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51 | (3) |
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4.2 What Our Eyes Can See |
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54 | (1) |
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4.3 Infrared Applications |
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55 | (3) |
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4.4 Types of Infrared Radiation |
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58 | (1) |
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4.5 Extrinsic Silicon Infrared Detectors |
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58 | (4) |
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4.6 Intrinsic Infrared Detectors |
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62 | (1) |
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4.7 Summary and Conclusions |
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63 | (1) |
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Appendix 4.1 Light Diffraction |
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64 | (2) |
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Appendix 4.2 Blackbody Radiation |
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66 | (3) |
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69 | (20) |
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Objectives of This Chapter |
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69 | (1) |
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69 | (3) |
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5.2 The Semiconductor Diode |
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72 | (4) |
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76 | (1) |
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5.4 The Zener or Tunnel Diode |
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77 | (4) |
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5.5 Summary and Conclusions |
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81 | (1) |
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Appendix 5.1 Fermi Levels of a pn-Junction |
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81 | (1) |
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Appendix 5.2 Diffusion and Drift Currents |
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82 | (1) |
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Appendix 5.3 The Thickness of the Transition Region |
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83 | (2) |
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Appendix 5.4 Work Function and the Schottky Diode |
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85 | (4) |
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6 Other Electrical Components |
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89 | (16) |
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Objectives of This Chapter |
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89 | (1) |
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89 | (1) |
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90 | (3) |
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93 | (3) |
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96 | (2) |
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98 | (1) |
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6.6 Inductor Applications |
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99 | (3) |
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6.7 Summary and Conclusions |
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102 | (1) |
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Appendix 6.1 Impedance and Phase Changes |
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102 | (3) |
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105 | (12) |
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Objectives of This Chapter |
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105 | (1) |
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105 | (1) |
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106 | (3) |
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7.3 Current Protection Circuit |
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109 | (1) |
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109 | (1) |
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110 | (1) |
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7.6 Half-wave Voltage Doubler |
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111 | (2) |
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7.7 Solar Cells Bypass Diodes |
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113 | (1) |
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7.8 Applications of Schottky Diodes |
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113 | (1) |
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7.9 Applications of Zener Diodes |
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114 | (1) |
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7.10 Summary and Conclusions |
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115 | (1) |
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Appendix 7.1 Calculation of the Current Through an RC Circuit |
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115 | (2) |
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117 | (18) |
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Objectives of This Chapter |
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117 | (1) |
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8.1 The Concept of the Transistor |
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117 | (1) |
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8.2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor |
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118 | (6) |
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8.3 The Junction Field-effect Transistor |
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124 | (4) |
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8.4 The Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET |
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128 | (4) |
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8.5 Summary and Conclusions |
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132 | (2) |
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Appendix 8.1 Punch Trough |
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134 | (1) |
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9 Transistor Biasing Circuits |
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135 | (24) |
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Objectives of This Chapter |
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135 | (1) |
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135 | (1) |
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9.2 Emitter Feedback Bias |
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136 | (4) |
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9.3 Sinusoidal Operation of a Transistor with Emitter Bias |
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140 | (4) |
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9.4 The Fixed Bias Circuit |
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144 | (3) |
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9.5 The Collector Feedback Bias Circuit |
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147 | (1) |
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148 | (1) |
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9.7 Multistage Transistor Amplifiers |
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149 | (1) |
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9.8 Operational Amplifiers |
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150 | (3) |
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153 | (2) |
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9.10 Summary and Conclusions |
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155 | (1) |
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Appendix 9.1 Derivation of the Stability of the Collector Feedback Circuit |
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156 | (3) |
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10 Integrated Circuit Fabrication |
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159 | (28) |
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Objectives of This Chapter |
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159 | (1) |
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159 | (1) |
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160 | (2) |
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10.2.1 The Czochralski Method |
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160 | (1) |
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10.2.2 The Flow-zone Method |
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161 | (1) |
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10.3 Wafers and Epitaxial Growth |
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162 | (1) |
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162 | (1) |
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10.5 The Fabrication of a pnp Transistor on a Silicon Wafer |
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163 | (3) |
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10.6 A Digression on Doping |
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166 | (4) |
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166 | (1) |
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167 | (3) |
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10.7 Resume the Transistor Processing |
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170 | (2) |
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170 | (1) |
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170 | (1) |
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10.7.3 Multiple Interconnects |
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171 | (1) |
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10.8 Fabrication of Other Components |
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172 | (2) |
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10.8.1 The Integrated Resistor |
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172 | (1) |
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10.8.2 The Integrated Capacitor |
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173 | (1) |
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10.8.3 The Integrated Inductor |
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173 | (1) |
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10.9 Testing and Packaging |
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174 | (4) |
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178 | (2) |
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10.11 Additional Thoughts About Processing |
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180 | (1) |
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10.12 Summary and Conclusions |
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181 | (2) |
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Appendix 10.1 Miller Indices in the Diamond Structure |
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183 | (4) |
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187 | (24) |
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Objectives of This Chapter |
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187 | (1) |
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187 | (1) |
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11.2 Logic Symbols and Relay Circuits |
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188 | (2) |
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11.3 The Electronics Inside the Symbols |
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190 | (2) |
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11.3.1 Diode Implementation |
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191 | (1) |
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11.3.2 CMOS Implementation |
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192 | (1) |
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11.4 The Inverter or NOT Circuit |
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192 | (1) |
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193 | (2) |
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195 | (1) |
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11.7 The XNOR or Exclusive NOR |
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196 | (1) |
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197 | (1) |
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198 | (1) |
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11.10 Adding More than Two Digital Numbers |
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198 | (1) |
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199 | (2) |
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11.12 Digression: Flip-flops, Latches, and Shifters |
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201 | (2) |
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11.13 Multiplication and Division of Binary Numbers |
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203 | (1) |
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11.14 Additional Comments: Speed and Power |
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204 | (2) |
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11.15 Summary and Conclusions |
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206 | (1) |
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Appendix 11.1 Algebraic Formulation of Logic Modules |
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206 | (1) |
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Appendix 11.2 Detailed Analysis of the Full Adder |
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207 | (1) |
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Appendix 11.3 Complementary Numbers |
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208 | (1) |
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Appendix 11.4 Dividing Digital Numbers |
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209 | (1) |
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Appendix 11.5 The Author's Symbolic Logic Machine Using Relays |
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210 | (1) |
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211 | (18) |
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Objectives of This Chapter |
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211 | (1) |
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211 | (2) |
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213 | (1) |
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214 | (2) |
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12.4 Timing and Waveforms |
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216 | (2) |
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218 | (9) |
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12.5.1 Static Random-access Memory |
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219 | (3) |
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12.5.2 Dynamic Random-access Memory |
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222 | (2) |
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224 | (1) |
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12.5.4 Programable Read-only Memory |
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225 | (2) |
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227 | (1) |
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12.7 Summary and Conclusions |
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227 | (1) |
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Appendix 12.1 A NAND implementation of a 2 to 1 MUX |
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228 | (1) |
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229 | (14) |
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Objectives of This Chapter |
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229 | (1) |
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229 | (1) |
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230 | (1) |
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231 | (7) |
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231 | (3) |
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13.3.2 Solid-state Lasers |
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234 | (1) |
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13.3.3 Semiconductor LASERS |
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234 | (3) |
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13.3.4 LASER Applications |
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237 | (1) |
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13.4 Light-emitting Diodes |
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238 | (2) |
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13.5 Summary and Conclusions |
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240 | (1) |
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Appendix 13.1 The Detector Readout |
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240 | (3) |
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14 Microprocessors and Modem Electronics |
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243 | (14) |
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Objectives of This Chapter |
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243 | (1) |
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243 | (5) |
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14.1.1 Computer Architecture |
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243 | (1) |
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244 | (2) |
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14.1.3 Input and Output Units |
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246 | (1) |
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14.1.4 The Central Processing Unit |
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246 | (2) |
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248 | (1) |
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14.3 Liquid Crystal Displays |
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249 | (6) |
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14.3.1 Liquid Crystal Materials |
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249 | (2) |
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251 | (1) |
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251 | (1) |
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14.3.4 Thin-film Transistors |
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251 | (2) |
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253 | (1) |
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253 | (1) |
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14.3.7 The Source of Light |
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254 | (1) |
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14.3.8 The Entire Operation |
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254 | (1) |
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14.4 Summary and Conclusions |
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255 | (1) |
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Appendix 14.1 Keyboard Codes |
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256 | (1) |
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257 | (16) |
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Objectives of This Chapter |
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257 | (1) |
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257 | (5) |
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15.2 Problems with Silicon-based Technology |
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262 | (3) |
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265 | (3) |
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265 | (1) |
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266 | (2) |
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268 | (1) |
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15.4 Silicon Technology Innovations |
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268 | (4) |
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15.4.1 Process Improvements |
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269 | (1) |
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15.4.2 Vertical Integration |
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269 | (2) |
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271 | (1) |
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271 | (1) |
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15.5 Summary and Conclusions |
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272 | (1) |
Epilogue |
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273 | (2) |
Appendix A Useful Constants |
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275 | (2) |
Appendix B Properties of Silicon |
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277 | (2) |
Appendix C List of Acronyms |
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279 | (6) |
Additional Reading and Sources |
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285 | (4) |
Index |
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289 | |