| Preface |
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xix | |
| Foreword |
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xxi | |
| Contributors |
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xxv | |
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1 Phytoremediation of Soils: Prospects and Challenges |
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1 | (4) |
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1 | (1) |
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The Global Scenario of Soil Pollution |
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2 | (2) |
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Effects of Soil Pollution on Human Health and Environment |
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4 | (1) |
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Technologies for Site Remediation |
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5 | (2) |
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5 | (1) |
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5 | (1) |
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5 | (1) |
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6 | (1) |
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7 | (1) |
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7 | (1) |
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7 | (7) |
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Phytoremediation System Design |
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8 | (3) |
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Economics of Phytoremediation |
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11 | (1) |
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Considerations for Waste Disposal |
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12 | (1) |
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Phytoremediation Technologies |
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12 | (2) |
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Heavy Metal Soil Pollutants and Use of Phytoremediation |
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14 | (2) |
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Approach to the Removal of Heavy Metal Soil Pollutants |
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14 | (1) |
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Ideal Plant Characteristics for Phytoremediation |
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15 | (1) |
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Basic Process of Hyperaccumulation |
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15 | (1) |
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16 | (2) |
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The Health Hazards of Arsenic |
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16 | (1) |
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Use of Phytoremediation to Remove Arsenic |
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17 | (1) |
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18 | (2) |
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The Health Hazards Caused by Lead |
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18 | (1) |
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Use of Phytoremediation to Clean Up Lead |
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19 | (1) |
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20 | (1) |
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The Health Hazards of Zinc |
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20 | (1) |
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Use of Phytoremediation to Clean Up Zinc |
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20 | (1) |
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21 | (2) |
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The Health Hazards of Copper |
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21 | (1) |
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Use of Phytoremediation to Clean Up Copper |
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21 | (2) |
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23 | (1) |
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The Health Hazards of Cadmium |
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23 | (1) |
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Use of Phytoremediation to Clean Up Cadmium |
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23 | (1) |
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24 | (2) |
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The Health Hazards of Mercury |
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24 | (1) |
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Use of Phytoremediation to Clean Up Mercury |
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24 | (2) |
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Prospects for Phytoremediation |
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26 | (2) |
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Phytoremediation Is Solar Energy--Driven and Cost-Effective |
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27 | (1) |
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Phytoremediation Is Environmental Friendly |
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27 | (1) |
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Phytoremediation Can Help Mining Industries |
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27 | (1) |
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Phytoremediation Cleans Up Contaminants in Soil and Water |
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27 | (1) |
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The Reduction of Noise Pollution and Genetically Engineered Phytoremediation Plants |
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28 | (1) |
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Challenges of Phytoremediation |
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28 | (2) |
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The Contaminant Can Be Extracted from as Deep as the Plant's Roots |
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29 | (1) |
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Slow Growth Cycle of Phytoremediation Plants |
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29 | (1) |
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Suitable Climatic Conditions and the Availability of Space for Phytoremediation |
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29 | (1) |
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Less Tolerance in Plants for Contaminant Uptake |
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29 | (1) |
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Accumulation of Contaminants in Plant Tissues |
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30 | (1) |
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Genetically Modified Plants in Phytoremediation: An Unexpected or Unknown Threat? |
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30 | (1) |
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Accessibility of Sites for Phytoremediation |
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30 | (1) |
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Techniques for Genetic Improvement of Plants Used for Phytoremediation |
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30 | (3) |
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Example: Hyperaccumulation of Metal and Plant Response after Genetic Modification |
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31 | (1) |
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Use of Recombinant DNA Technology in Genetic Improvement for Phytoremediation |
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32 | (1) |
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Introduction of Genes Capable of Altering the Oxidation State of Heavy Metals |
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32 | (1) |
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Use of Phytochelatins to Capture Metal Ions |
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32 | (1) |
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33 | (1) |
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33 | (4) |
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2 Soil Contamination with Metals: Sources, Types and Implications |
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37 | (2) |
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39 | (4) |
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Sources of Heavy Metals in Soil |
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39 | (4) |
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Effects of Heavy Metals in Soils and Plants |
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43 | (5) |
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Build-Up of Heavy Metals in Soil |
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43 | (1) |
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Toxicity Symptoms in Plants |
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43 | (5) |
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Risk Assessment Using Bioavailability and Bio-Accessibility Techniques |
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48 | (3) |
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51 | (4) |
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Removal of Heavy Metals from Soils |
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51 | (1) |
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Phytoextraction of Heavy Metals |
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51 | (1) |
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Chelator-Assisted Heavy Metals Phytoremediation |
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52 | (1) |
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Biochar Application as an Emerging Tool for Reducing Heavy Metal Impacts |
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53 | (2) |
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55 | (1) |
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55 | (8) |
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3 Phytoremediation: A Promising Strategy on the Crossroads of Remediation |
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63 | (1) |
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Metal Pollutants and Human Health |
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64 | (2) |
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Microbial-Based Remediation |
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66 | (1) |
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Enhancing Bioremediation Through Genetic Engineering |
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67 | (1) |
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Surface Expression of Novel Metal Binding Peptides and Proteins |
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68 | (1) |
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68 | (10) |
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69 | (4) |
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73 | (1) |
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74 | (1) |
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Insights into Genetic Engineering Approaches for Phytoremediation |
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75 | (3) |
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78 | (1) |
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78 | (7) |
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4 Phytoremediation: Mechanisms and Adaptations |
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85 | (1) |
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Phytoremediation and Mechanisms |
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86 | (11) |
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86 | (7) |
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93 | (3) |
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96 | (1) |
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97 | (1) |
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97 | (10) |
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5 Phytoremediation: An Eco-Friendly Green Technology for Pollution Prevention, Control and Remediation |
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107 | (2) |
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108 | (1) |
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Plants' Response to Heavy Metals |
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109 | (6) |
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110 | (1) |
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110 | (1) |
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Metal Accumulating Plant Species |
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110 | (5) |
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Factors Affecting Phytoremediation |
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115 | (4) |
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Availability of Metals in Soil |
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115 | (2) |
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Plant Uptake and Translocation |
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117 | (1) |
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Plant Microbe Interactions |
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117 | (1) |
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118 | (1) |
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Mechanism for Metal Detoxification |
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119 | (2) |
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Conclusions and Future Perspectives |
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121 | (1) |
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122 | (9) |
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6 Recent Trends and Approaches in Phytoremediation |
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131 | (1) |
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Phytoremediation Technologies |
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132 | (5) |
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132 | (2) |
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134 | (1) |
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135 | (1) |
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136 | (1) |
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Genetic Engineering to Improve Phytoremediation |
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137 | (5) |
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Conclusions and Future Perspectives |
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142 | (1) |
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142 | (5) |
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7 Evaluation of Four Plant Species for Phytoremediation of Copper-Contaminated Soil |
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147 | (2) |
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147 | (1) |
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148 | (1) |
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148 | (1) |
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149 | (10) |
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Environmental Pollution and Sources of Contamination |
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149 | (1) |
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Soil Contamination by Heavy Metals |
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149 | (2) |
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Toxicity of Heavy Metals in Plants |
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151 | (2) |
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Uptake and Translocation of Copper by Plant Parts (Leaves, Stems and Roots) |
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153 | (1) |
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Remediation of Heavy Metals |
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153 | (3) |
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Criteria for Metal Accumulation in Plants |
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156 | (3) |
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159 | (5) |
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Description of Study Area |
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159 | (1) |
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159 | (1) |
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Experimental Design and Treatments |
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160 | (1) |
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Plant Species and Planting |
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160 | (1) |
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160 | (1) |
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161 | (2) |
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Evaluation of Heavy Metals Uptake Using Removal Efficiency (RE), Bioconcentration Factor (BCF) and Translocation Factor (TF) |
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163 | (1) |
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164 | (1) |
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164 | (31) |
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Physico-Chemical Properties of the Control Media |
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164 | (31) |
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Summary, General Conclusion and Recommendation for Future Research |
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195 | (1) |
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195 | (2) |
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Recommendations for Future Research |
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197 | (1) |
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197 | (10) |
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8 Role of Phytoremediation in Radioactive Waste Treatment |
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207 | (8) |
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Radioactive Material and Safety |
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215 | (2) |
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Classification and Categories |
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217 | (2) |
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219 | (1) |
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Transportation and Responsibility |
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220 | (1) |
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Phytoremediation and Non-Plant Methods |
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220 | (1) |
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Engineering-Based Technologies |
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220 | (1) |
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In Situ Biological Remediation |
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221 | (1) |
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Phytoremediation and Hyperaccumulation |
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221 | (2) |
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Methods in Phytoremediation |
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223 | (12) |
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223 | (8) |
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231 | (1) |
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232 | (1) |
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232 | (1) |
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233 | (1) |
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234 | (1) |
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Vegetation Caps and Buffer Strips |
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234 | (1) |
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235 | (1) |
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235 | (1) |
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236 | (1) |
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Wetlands and Aquatic Phytoremediation |
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237 | (1) |
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237 | (1) |
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Combinations of Phytoremediation Methods |
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238 | (1) |
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Treatment, Evaluation and Objectives |
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238 | (2) |
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239 | (1) |
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Surface Water and Waste Water |
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239 | (1) |
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Soil, Sediment and Sludge |
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240 | (1) |
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240 | (1) |
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240 | (4) |
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Transgenic Phytoremediation |
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244 | (1) |
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Conclusions and Future Directions |
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245 | (2) |
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247 | (8) |
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9 Plant--Microbe Interactions in Phytoremediation |
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Definition of Phytoremediation |
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255 | (2) |
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Accumulator/Hyperaccumulator Plants |
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256 | (1) |
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Phytoremediation Applications |
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257 | (3) |
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Interactions Between Plants and Microbes in Phytoremediation |
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260 | (6) |
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266 | (2) |
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Stimulation of Plant Growth by Microbial Communities |
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268 | (3) |
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271 | (1) |
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272 | (15) |
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10 Soil Pollution in Turkey and Remediation Methods |
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287 | (2) |
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Land Use of Turkish Soils |
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289 | (2) |
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Sources of Soil Pollution in Turkey |
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291 | (13) |
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292 | (1) |
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293 | (1) |
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294 | (5) |
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299 | (3) |
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302 | (1) |
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303 | (1) |
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Remediation Methods for Polluted Soils |
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304 | (1) |
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Remediation Studies in Turkey |
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305 | (2) |
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307 | (1) |
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307 | (1) |
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308 | (5) |
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11 Soil Pollution Status and Its Remediation in Nepal |
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313 | (2) |
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315 | (1) |
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316 | (6) |
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316 | (1) |
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316 | (1) |
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317 | (1) |
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317 | (1) |
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317 | (1) |
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318 | (1) |
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318 | (1) |
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318 | (1) |
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318 | (1) |
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318 | (1) |
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318 | (1) |
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319 | (1) |
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319 | (1) |
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319 | (1) |
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320 | (1) |
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320 | (1) |
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320 | (1) |
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320 | (1) |
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320 | (1) |
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320 | (1) |
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321 | (1) |
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321 | (1) |
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321 | (1) |
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321 | (1) |
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Nutrient and Heavy Metal Status in the Soils of Nepal |
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322 | (3) |
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Remediation of Toxicity from Soil |
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325 | (1) |
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Remediation Studies on Removal of Toxicity in Soil of Nepal |
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326 | (1) |
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326 | (1) |
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327 | (4) |
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12 Transfer of Heavy Metals and Radionuclides from Soil to Vegetables and Plants in Bangladesh |
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331 | (2) |
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333 | (8) |
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Geology and Geomorphology of the Study Area |
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333 | (1) |
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334 | (1) |
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Analysis of Heavy Metals and Radioactivity |
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335 | (3) |
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338 | (3) |
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341 | (21) |
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Concentrations of Heavy Metals in the Top Soil |
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341 | (1) |
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Pollution Index Assessment of Soil |
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342 | (2) |
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Levels of Heavy Metals in Plants and Vegetables |
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344 | (4) |
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Pollution Index Assessment of Different Crops |
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348 | (1) |
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Comparative Study of the Heavy Metal Contents in Soil and Plants |
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349 | (1) |
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Heavy Metal Transfer from Soil to Food Crops |
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350 | (4) |
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Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Vegetables |
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354 | (6) |
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360 | (1) |
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Radioactivity in Vegetables |
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361 | (1) |
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362 | (1) |
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362 | (1) |
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363 | (1) |
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364 | (3) |
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13 Remediating Cadmium-Contaminated Soils by Growing Grain Crops Using Inorganic Amendments |
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367 | (1) |
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Natural Cadmium Levels in Soil |
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368 | (1) |
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Sources of Cadmium Contamination of Agricultural Soils |
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369 | (1) |
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Bioassessment of Cadmium in Soils |
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370 | (1) |
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Factors Influencing the Accumulation of Cadmium in Crops |
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370 | (2) |
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370 | (2) |
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372 | (1) |
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372 | (1) |
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Cadmium Uptake and Accumulation in Plants |
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372 | (6) |
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Effects on Seed Germination |
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374 | (1) |
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Effects on Plant Growth and Biomass |
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375 | (1) |
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Effects on Mineral Nutrients |
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376 | (1) |
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Effects on Photosynthetic Pigments |
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376 | (1) |
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Cd-Induced Oxidative Stress in Plants |
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377 | (1) |
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Miscellaneous Toxic Effects |
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377 | (1) |
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Plant Response To Cd Concentrations |
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378 | (1) |
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Threshold Bio-Available Concentration of Cd |
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378 | (1) |
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Remediation of Cd-Contaminated Soils |
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379 | (6) |
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Metals Response to Calcium Containing Inorganic Amendments |
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379 | (2) |
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Metals Response to Phosphorus Containing Amendments |
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381 | (3) |
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Metals Behaviour in Response to Ammonium Containing Amendments |
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384 | (1) |
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Metals Behaviour in Response to Sulphur-Containing Amendments |
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384 | (1) |
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385 | (1) |
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386 | (11) |
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14 Phytoremediation of Pb-Contaminated Soils Using Synthetic Chelates |
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397 | (2) |
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399 | (1) |
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399 | (8) |
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Ethylene Diamine Tetraacetic Acid (EDTA) |
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400 | (3) |
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Ethylene Diamine Disuccinic Acid |
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403 | (3) |
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Nitrilotriacetic Acid (NTA) |
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406 | (1) |
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Comparison of Synthetic Chelating Agents |
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407 | (1) |
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407 | (1) |
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408 | (7) |
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15 Spatial Mapping of Metal-Contaminated Soils |
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415 | (2) |
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Geophysical Techniques to Assess Spatial Variability |
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417 | (1) |
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Global Positioning System (GPS) |
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417 | (1) |
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417 | (1) |
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Geographic Information System |
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418 | (3) |
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419 | (1) |
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420 | (1) |
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420 | (1) |
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Inverse Weighted Distance |
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421 | (1) |
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421 | (6) |
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Creating a Database File for GIS Environment |
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423 | (4) |
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427 | (1) |
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428 | (5) |
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16 Arsenic Toxicity in Plants and Possible Remediation |
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433 | (2) |
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Environmental Chemistry of Arsenic |
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435 | (1) |
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Sources of Arsenic Contamination in Soil and Environment |
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436 | (2) |
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Status of Arsenic Toxicity in the World |
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438 | (3) |
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Arsenic Hazard: A Bangladesh Perspective |
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441 | (7) |
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Arsenic Uptake and Transportation in Plants |
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448 | (3) |
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Plant Responses to Arsenic Toxicity |
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451 | (1) |
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451 | (4) |
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455 | (1) |
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456 | (1) |
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457 | (2) |
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459 | (1) |
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460 | (1) |
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Antioxidant Defence in Plants in Response to Arsenic Stress |
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461 | (7) |
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Remediation of Arsenic Hazards |
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468 | (17) |
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468 | (2) |
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Phytoremediation of Arsenic-Contaminated Soils |
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470 | (13) |
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Presumed Phytochelatin-Mediated Detoxification of As Toxicity |
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483 | (2) |
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Role of Biotechnology in Remediation of Arsenic Toxicity |
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|
485 | (1) |
|
Conclusion and Future Perspectives |
|
|
485 | (1) |
|
|
|
486 | (1) |
|
|
|
486 | (17) |
|
17 Phytoremediation of Metal-Contaminated Soils Using Organic Amendments: Prospects and Challenges |
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|
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|
|
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|
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|
|
|
|
503 | (2) |
|
|
|
505 | (1) |
|
Role of OM in Phytoavailability of Metals |
|
|
506 | (3) |
|
Organic Amendments and Phytoavailability of Metals in Contaminated Soils |
|
|
509 | (3) |
|
|
|
509 | (1) |
|
|
|
510 | (1) |
|
Activated Carbon / Biochar |
|
|
511 | (1) |
|
|
|
512 | (1) |
|
Effect of Time on Decomposition of Organic Amendments and Metal Phytoavailability |
|
|
512 | (2) |
|
Residual Effect of Organic Amendments on Metal Phytoavailability |
|
|
514 | (1) |
|
Organic Acids and Metal Phytoavailability |
|
|
515 | (1) |
|
Phytoremediation with Organic Amendments: Conclusion and Future Thrust |
|
|
515 | (1) |
|
|
|
516 | (9) |
|
18 Soil Contamination, Remediation and Plants: Prospects and Challenges |
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|
525 | (2) |
|
Sources of Heavy Metals in Soil |
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527 | (4) |
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528 | (1) |
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|
528 | (1) |
|
|
|
528 | (1) |
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|
|
529 | (1) |
|
Metal Mining, Milling Processes and Industrial Wastes |
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|
530 | (1) |
|
|
|
530 | (1) |
|
Potential Risk of Heavy Metals to Soil |
|
|
531 | (1) |
|
Soil Concentration Ranges and Regulatory Guidelines for Some Heavy Metals |
|
|
531 | (1) |
|
Remediation of Contaminated Soil by Heavy Metals |
|
|
532 | (4) |
|
Prevention of Heavy Metal Contamination |
|
|
536 | (1) |
|
Traditional Remediation of Contaminated Soil |
|
|
536 | (1) |
|
Management of Contaminated Soil |
|
|
537 | (3) |
|
The Use of Plants for Environmental Clean-Up |
|
|
538 | (1) |
|
The Use of Plants for Treating Metal-Contaminated Soils |
|
|
538 | (1) |
|
|
|
539 | (1) |
|
|
|
539 | (1) |
|
Classification of Heavy Metals |
|
|
540 | (1) |
|
Sources of Heavy Metals in the Environment |
|
|
540 | (1) |
|
Benefits of Heavy Metals to Plants |
|
|
541 | (1) |
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|
|
542 | (1) |
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|
|
542 | (1) |
|
|
|
543 | (1) |
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|
543 | (4) |
|
19 Improving Phytoremediation of Soil Polluted with Oil Hydrocarbons in Georgia |
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|
|
547 | (2) |
|
Characterization of Soil Types |
|
|
549 | (1) |
|
Selection of Microorganisms |
|
|
550 | (1) |
|
|
|
551 | (6) |
|
Determination of the Degree of Oxidative Degradation of Hydrocarbons |
|
|
557 | (2) |
|
Revelation of Plant--Microbial Interaction |
|
|
559 | (1) |
|
|
|
559 | (8) |
|
|
|
567 | (4) |
|
20 Remediation of Cd-Contaminated Soils: Perspectives and Advancements |
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|
|
|
Background and Introduction |
|
|
571 | (1) |
|
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|
571 | (2) |
|
Soil Dynamics, Retention and Availability of Metals |
|
|
573 | (1) |
|
Dynamics of Cadmium in Soils |
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
Influence of the Associated Cations and Anions on Cadmium Bioavailability in Soil |
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
Response of Cd Towards Natural Elemental Inorganic Amendments |
|
|
575 | (3) |
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|
|
575 | (1) |
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|
|
576 | (1) |
|
|
|
576 | (1) |
|
|
|
576 | (1) |
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|
|
577 | (1) |
|
|
|
577 | (1) |
|
Manganese, Silicon and Chloride |
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
Organic Amendments Versus Cadmium-Contaminated Soils |
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
Natural Organic Additives |
|
|
579 | (1) |
|
Root Exudates and the Concept of Organic Acids as Natural Chelators |
|
|
579 | (1) |
|
Low-Molecular-Weight Organic Acids and Cadmium Chelation |
|
|
580 | (1) |
|
Efficacy of Synthetic Organic Chelating Agents Towards Cadmium |
|
|
581 | (1) |
|
Recent Presented Reports Regarding Grain Crops |
|
|
582 | (4) |
|
Conclusions and the Concept of Coupled Phytoremediation as a Future Perspective |
|
|
586 | (1) |
|
|
|
587 | (12) |
|
21 Phytoremediation of Radioactive Contaminated Soils |
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|
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|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
599 | (1) |
|
|
|
600 | (1) |
|
Major Sources of Radioactive Contaminants to Soil and Environment |
|
|
600 | (4) |
|
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
Production of Nuclear Weapons |
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
Industrial Processes / Techniques Involving Radionuclides |
|
|
603 | (1) |
|
|
|
603 | (1) |
|
|
|
604 | (1) |
|
Possible Roles of Phytoremediation |
|
|
604 | (4) |
|
|
|
604 | (1) |
|
|
|
605 | (1) |
|
The Potential for Phytoextraction |
|
|
605 | (3) |
|
|
|
608 | (1) |
|
|
|
608 | (1) |
|
|
|
608 | (7) |
|
|
|
609 | (1) |
|
|
|
609 | (4) |
|
|
|
613 | (2) |
|
|
|
615 | (1) |
|
Possibilities and Prospects |
|
|
615 | (1) |
|
Non-Food Crops / Alternative Crops |
|
|
615 | (2) |
|
|
|
616 | (1) |
|
Biofuel / Biodiesel Crops |
|
|
616 | (1) |
|
Steps Involved in Remediation Programme Management |
|
|
617 | (1) |
|
Major Steps in the Management of a Remediation Programme |
|
|
617 | (4) |
|
|
|
617 | (1) |
|
|
|
618 | (1) |
|
|
|
618 | (1) |
|
|
|
618 | (1) |
|
Soil Solution Uranium (238U) |
|
|
619 | (1) |
|
Agricultural and Forested Zones and Their Remediation |
|
|
620 | (1) |
|
Phytostabilization of Radionuclide Contaminated Soils |
|
|
621 | (1) |
|
Remediation Actions Implementation |
|
|
621 | (2) |
|
Conducting Post-Remediation Activities |
|
|
621 | (1) |
|
|
|
622 | (1) |
|
Remediation of Areas of Extensive Surface Contamination |
|
|
622 | (1) |
|
|
|
623 | (6) |
|
22 Heavy Metal Accumulation in Serpentine Flora of Mersin-Findikpinari (Turkey) -- Role of Ethylenediamine Tetraacetic Acid in Facilitating Extraction of Nickel |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
629 | (3) |
|
|
|
632 | (3) |
|
Field Study: Site Description, Soil Characterization, Plant Analysis and Plant Selection |
|
|
632 | (1) |
|
Greenhouse Study: Soil Characterization, Artificial Soil Contamination, Pot Experiment and Plant Analysis |
|
|
633 | (2) |
|
|
|
635 | (1) |
|
|
|
635 | (19) |
|
|
|
635 | (10) |
|
|
|
645 | (9) |
|
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
|
|
655 | (6) |
|
23 Phytomanagement of Padaeng Zinc Mine Waste, Mae Sot District, Tak Province, Thailand |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Natthawoot Panitlertumpai |
|
|
|
|
|
|
661 | (4) |
|
Phytomanagement of A Zinc-Mine-Industry-Ravaged Ecosystem |
|
|
665 | (3) |
|
Phytomanagement for Sustainable Agriculture in the Vicinity of Mae Sot Zinc Mine |
|
|
668 | (7) |
|
Feasible Options for the Management of Arable Lands Mine Tailing Water |
|
|
675 | (2) |
|
|
|
677 | (4) |
|
Reduction of Cd in Crop Produce |
|
|
681 | (1) |
|
|
|
682 | (1) |
|
|
|
682 | (1) |
|
|
|
683 | (6) |
|
24 Effect of Pig Slurry Application on Soil Organic Carbon |
|
|
|
|
|
Asuman Buyukkilic Yanardag |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Introduction: Importance of Soil Organic Matter |
|
|
689 | (1) |
|
|
|
690 | (1) |
|
Effect of Pig Slurry Application on Soil Organic Carbon |
|
|
691 | (6) |
|
|
|
692 | (1) |
|
|
|
693 | (2) |
|
|
|
695 | (2) |
|
|
|
697 | (1) |
|
|
|
698 | (1) |
|
|
|
699 | (2) |
|
|
|
701 | (1) |
|
|
|
701 | (6) |
| Index |
|
707 | |
