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E-grāmata: Time: From Earth Rotation to Atomic Physics

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(University of Virginia), (United States Naval Observatory)
  • Formāts: EPUB+DRM
  • Izdošanas datums: 18-Oct-2018
  • Izdevniecība: Cambridge University Press
  • Valoda: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781108187077
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Time: From Earth Rotation to Atomic PhysicsPalielināt
  • Formāts: EPUB+DRM
  • Izdošanas datums: 18-Oct-2018
  • Izdevniecība: Cambridge University Press
  • Valoda: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781108187077
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This accessible reference presents the evolution of concepts of time and methods of time keeping, for historians, scientists, engineers, and educators. The second edition has been updated throughout to describe twentieth- and twenty-first-century advances, progress in devices, time and cosmology, the redefinition of SI units, and the future of UTC.

In the twenty-first century, we take the means to measure time for granted, without contemplating the sophisticated concepts on which our time scales are based. This volume presents the evolution of concepts of time and methods of time keeping up to the present day. It outlines the progression of time based on sundials, water clocks, and the Earth's rotation, to time measurement using pendulum clocks, quartz crystal clocks, and atomic frequency standards. Time scales created as a result of these improvements in technology and the development of general and special relativity are explained. This second edition has been updated throughout to describe twentieth- and twenty-first-century advances and discusses the redefinition of SI units and the future of UTC. A new chapter on time and cosmology has been added. This broad-ranging reference benefits a diverse readership, including historians, scientists, engineers, educators, and it is accessible to general readers.

Recenzijas

'Why do we add 1 second to our clocks at midnight at the end of some years, or at the end of June in others? Why don't we subtract 1 second sometimes instead? You will find the answers to these and many more questions in this excellent book, written by two experts who worked on the practical aspects of these topics at the US Naval Observatory The second edition brings these subjects right up to date, and investigates the possible future developments in timekeeping.' L. V. Morrison, The Observatory

Papildus informācija

This accessible reference presents the evolution of concepts of time and methods of time keeping, for historians, scientists, engineers, and educators.
Preface xv
1 Time Before the 20th Century 1(9)
1.1 In the Beginning
1(1)
1.2 Characterizing Time
1(1)
1.3 Calendars
2(1)
1.4 Astronomical Observations
3(1)
1.5 Timekeeping
4(1)
1.6 Time Epochs
5(1)
1.7 Time Transfer
6(1)
1.8 Rotation of the Earth
7(1)
1.9 Beginning the 20th Century
8(2)
2 Time from the Earth's Rotation 10(15)
2.1 Apparent Solar Time
10(1)
2.2 Mean Solar Time
10(3)
2.3 Sidereal Time
13(2)
2.4 Washington Conference of 1884
15(1)
2.5 Universal Time
15(3)
2.6 UT1 as Mean Solar Time
18(2)
2.7 Coordinated Universal Time
20(1)
2.8 Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
21(1)
2.9 Time Zones
22(1)
2.10 Daylight Savings Time
22(3)
3 Ephemerides 25(22)
3.1 Ephemerides and Time
25(1)
3.2 Before Kepler and Newton
26(2)
3.3 Kepler and Newton
28(1)
3.4 Tables, General Theories, and Ephemerides
29(3)
3.5 Lunar Theories
32(3)
3.6 The Advent of Computers
35(1)
3.7 Numerical Integrations
35(1)
3.8 Observational Data
36(1)
3.8.1 Radar Observations
36(1)
3.8.2 Lunar Laser Ranging
37(1)
3.8.3 Spacecraft Observations
37(1)
3.9 Modern Ephemerides
37(1)
3.10 Reference System
38(1)
3.11 Besselian Year
39(1)
3.12 Time Arguments
40(1)
3.13 Astronomical Constants
40(1)
3.14 Redefinition of the Astronomical Unit (au)
41(1)
3.15 Artificial Satellite Theories
42(1)
3.16 Theory of Relativity
42(5)
4 Variable Earth Rotation 47(21)
4.1 Pre 19th Century
47(1)
4.2 Secular Variation
48(2)
4.3 Irregular Variations in the Earth's Rotation
50(8)
4.4 Early Explanations for the Variable Rotation
58(1)
4.5 Current Understanding of the Earth's Variable Rotation
59(3)
4.6 Consequences
62(6)
5 Earth Orientation 68(20)
5.1 Reference Systems
68(5)
5.1.1 Celestial Reference Frame
69(1)
5.1.2 Terrestrial Reference Frame
70(2)
5.1.3 Intermediate Reference System
72(1)
5.2 Variations in Earth Orientation
73(7)
5.2.1 Precession/Nutation
74(2)
5.2.2 Polar Motion
76(3)
5.2.3 UT1
79(1)
5.3 Variations in Earth Orientation
80(1)
5.4 Transforming between Reference Frames
81(3)
5.5 Determination of Earth Orientation
84(1)
5.6 Earth Orientation Data
85(3)
6 Ephemeris Time 88(16)
6.1 Need for a Uniform Timescale
88(1)
6.2 Danjon Proposal
89(1)
6.3 Clemence Proposal
90(1)
6.4 Adoption and Definition
91(1)
6.5 Observational Determination
92(3)
6.6 The Ephemeris Second and Atomic Time
95(2)
6.7 Historical AT
97(1)
6.8 Problems with Ephemeris Time
97(3)
6.9 Relativity
100(1)
6.10 Dynamical Timescales
101(3)
7 Relativity and Time 104(19)
7.1 Newtonian Reference Systems
104(1)
7.2 Special Relativity
104(2)
7.3 Lorentz Transformations
106(1)
7.4 Coordinate and Proper Time
107(2)
7.5 Minkowski Diagrams
109(2)
7.6 Time in Special Relativity
111(1)
7.7 General Relativity
112(2)
7.7.1 Metrics in General Relativity
112(1)
7.7.2 The Equivalence Principle
113(1)
7.8 IAU Resolutions
114(7)
7.9 Timescales
121(1)
7.9.1 International Atomic Time
121(1)
7.9.2 Dynamical Timescales
121(1)
7.10 Relativistic Effects in Time Transfer
122(1)
8 Time and Cosmology 123(8)
8.1 Introduction
123(1)
8.2 Space-Time Metric
123(1)
8.3 The Expanding Universe
124(1)
8.4 Age of the Universe
125(1)
8.5 Evolution of the Universe
126(1)
8.6 Cosmic Time
126(2)
8.7 Time's Arrow
128(1)
8.8 Future of the Universe
128(3)
9 Dynamical and Coordinate Timescales 131(17)
9.1 Replacing Ephemeris Time
131(1)
9.2 Terrestrial Dynamical Time (TDT) and Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB)
132(3)
9.3 Problems with TDT and TDB
135(1)
9.4 New Reference System
136(1)
9.5 New Timescales
137(5)
9.5.1 Terrestrial Time (TT)
138(1)
9.5.2 Geocentric Coordinate Time (TCG)
139(1)
9.5.3 Barycentric Coordinate Time (TCB)
139(2)
9.5.4 TDB Redefined
141(1)
9.5.5 Barycentric Ephemeris Time (TEO)
142(1)
9.6 AT and Ephemeris Time Revised
142(1)
9.7 Relationships among Coordinate Timescales
143(5)
10 Clock Developments 148(23)
10.1 Introduction
148(1)
10.2 Keeping Time in Antiquity
148(2)
10.2.1 Clepsydrae and Water "Clocks"
149(1)
10.2.2 Other Timekeeping Devices
150(1)
10.3 The First Mechanical Clocks
150(1)
10.4 Pendulum Clocks
151(6)
10.4.1 Galileo
152(1)
10.4.2 Huygens
152(3)
10.4.3 Pendulum Clock Developments
155(1)
10.4.4 Chronometers
156(1)
10.5 Quartz Crystal Clocks
157(3)
10.6 Clock Performance
160(11)
10.6.1 Quality (Q) Factor
161(1)
10.6.2 Precision
162(1)
10.6.3 Accuracy
163(1)
10.6.4 Stability
163(8)
11 Microwave Atomic Clocks 171(32)
11.1 Beyond Quartz-Crystal Oscillators
171(1)
11.2 Physics of Atomic Clocks
172(2)
11.3 General Structure of Atomic Clocks
174(3)
11.4 Development of Atomic Clocks
177(17)
11.4.1 Caesium
177(12)
11.4.2 Hydrogen
189(2)
11.4.3 Rubidium
191(3)
11.5 Trapped Ion Clocks
194(3)
11.5.1 Mercury
196(1)
11.5.2 Other Ions
197(1)
11.6 PHARAO Laser-Cooled Microgravity Atomic Clock
197(1)
11.7 Characterizing Atomic Clocks
198(5)
12 Optical Atomic Standards 203(12)
12.1 Optical Transition Frequencies
203(4)
12.2 Optical Ion Clocks
207(1)
12.3 Optical Neutral Atom Clocks
208(2)
12.4 Quantum Logic Clock
210(1)
12.5 Stabilized Lasers
210(1)
12.6 Characterizing Optical Standards
211(4)
13 Definition and Role of a Second 215(10)
13.1 The Historical Second
215(2)
13.2 The "Ephemeris Second"
217(1)
13.3 The SI Second
218(3)
13.4 Adopting the SI Second
221(2)
13.5 Toward the Redefinition of the Second
223(2)
14 International Atomic Time (TAI) 225(24)
14.1 Constructing an Atomic Timescale
225(2)
14.2 History of TAI
227(5)
14.3 Formation of TAI
232(10)
14.3.1 EAL
233(7)
14.3.2 Steering EAL with Primary and Secondary Frequency Standards
240(2)
14.4 Stability of TAI
242(1)
14.5 Distribution of TAI
242(1)
14.6 Relationship of TAI to Terrestrial Time
243(6)
15 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) 249(13)
15.1 Universal Time before 1972
249(5)
15.2 Coordinated Universal Time after 1972
254(1)
15.3 Leap Seconds
255(1)
15.4 DUT1
256(1)
15.5 UTC Worldwide
257(1)
15.6 Time Distribution
257(1)
15.7 The Future of UTC: Leap Seconds or Not?
257(5)
16 Time in the Solar System 262(16)
16.1 The Solar System
262(1)
16.2 Pursuit of Uniformity
263(1)
16.3 Pursuit of Accuracy
263(1)
16.4 Time and Phenomena
264(3)
16.4.1 Eclipses, Occultations, Transits
264(2)
16.4.2 Sunrises and Sunsets
266(1)
16.4.3 Moonrises and Moonsets
266(1)
16.5 Tropical Year
267(1)
16.6 Time and Distance
268(6)
16.6.1 Meter Definition
268(1)
16.6.2 Radar Ranging
269(1)
16.6.3 Laser Ranging
269(1)
16.6.4 Navigation Systems
269(5)
16.7 Space Mission Times
274(1)
16.7.1 Doppler Effect
274(1)
16.8 Proper Times at Planets
274(1)
16.9 Pulsars: An Independent Source of Time
275(1)
16.10 White Dwarfs: An Independent Source of Time
276(2)
17 Time and Frequency Transfer 278(16)
17.1 Historical Transfer Techniques
278(1)
17.2 Time and Frequency Dissemination Modeling
279(4)
17.2.1 Propagation Effects
279(1)
17.2.2 Calibration
280(1)
17.2.3 Relativistic Effects
280(3)
17.3 Time and Frequency Dissemination Systems
283(9)
17.3.1 Coaxial Cable
283(1)
17.3.2 Telephone
283(1)
17.3.3 Optical Fiber
283(1)
17.3.4 Microwave Links
284(1)
17.3.5 Television Broadcast
285(1)
17.3.6 Internet
285(1)
17.3.7 High-Frequency Radio Signals
285(1)
17.3.8 Low-Frequency Broadcast Radio Signals
286(1)
17.3.9 Low-Frequency Navigation Signals
287(1)
17.3.10 Navigation Satellite Broadcast Signals
288(2)
17.3.11 Two-Way Satellite Time and Frequency Transfer (TWSTFT)
290(1)
17.3.12 Optical Two-Way Time and Frequency Transfer (TWTFT)
291(1)
17.4 Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space (ACES)
292(2)
18 Modern Earth Orientation 294(22)
18.1 Terrestrial to Celestial Reference Systems
294(1)
18.2 Determination of Earth Orientation Parameters
295(17)
18.2.1 Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI)
296(6)
18.2.2 Global Positioning System (GPS)
302(2)
18.2.3 Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR)
304(4)
18.2.4 Doppler Orbit Determination and Radio Positioning Integrated on Satellite (DORIS)
308(1)
18.2.5 Geophysical Modeling
308(4)
18.2.6 Geomagnetic Field
312(1)
18.3 Earth Orientation Data
312(4)
19 International Activities 316(18)
19.1 Time and International Activities
316(1)
19.2 Treaty of the Meter
316(2)
19.2.1 General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM)
317(1)
19.2.2 International Committee on Weights and Measures (CIPM)
317(1)
19.2.3 Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM)
318(1)
19.3 Scientific Unions
318(7)
19.3.1 International Astronomical Union (IAU)
319(2)
19.3.2 International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG)
321(1)
19.3.3 International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
322(3)
19.4 Service Organizations
325(9)
19.4.1 International Earth rotation and Reference systems Service (IERS)
326(3)
19.4.2 International VLBI Service for Geodesy and Astrometry (IVS)
329(1)
19.4.3 International Laser Ranging Service (ILRS)
329(1)
19.4.4 International GNSS (Global Navigational Satellite Service) Service (IGS)
330(1)
19.4.5 International DORIS Service (IDS)
331(3)
20 Time Applications 334(10)
20.1 Time Enables the Infrastructure
334(1)
20.2 Positioning and Navigation Services
334(1)
20.3 Time Domain Astronomy (TDA)
335(1)
20.4 Intelligent Transportation Systems
335(1)
20.5 Communications
336(2)
20.6 Power Grid
338(1)
20.7 Banking and Finance
339(1)
20.8 Emergency Services
339(1)
20.9 Water Flow
339(1)
20.10 Scientific
340(1)
20.11 Religions
340(1)
20.12 General Public
340(1)
20.13 Summary
340(4)
21 Future of Timekeeping 344(7)
21.1 Future Needs for Time
344(1)
21.2 Modeling the Earth's Rotation
345(1)
21.3 Clocks of the Future
346(1)
21.4 Future Timescales
346(2)
21.5 Future Time Distribution
348(3)
Acronyms 351(7)
Glossary 358(21)
Index 379
Dennis D. McCarthy is a former Director of Time at the United States Naval Observatory, the leading authority in the US for astronomical and timing data. He has led and been a member of various Commissions and Working Groups within the International Astronomical Union and has authored and edited numerous publications dealing with fundamental astronomy, time, and Earth orientation. P. Kenneth Seidelmann is a research professor of astronomy at the University of Virginia and is a former Director of Astrometry at the US Naval Observatory. He has led and been a member of a Division, various Commissions, and Working Groups of the International Astronomical Union, has co-authored two other books: Fundamentals of Astrometry (Cambridge, 2004) and Celestial Mechanics and Astrodynamics (2016), and is co-editor of the Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac (2012).
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