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E-grāmata: World Trade Law and the Emergence of International Electricity Markets

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World Trade Law and the Emergence of International Electricity MarketsPalielināt
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The expansion of cross-border power transmission infrastructures and the regional integration of electricity markets are accelerating on several continents. The internationalization of trade in electric energy is embedded in an even greater transformation: the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energies and the race to net zero emissions. Against this backdrop, this book provides a comprehensive examination of the regulatory framework that governs the established and newly emerging electricity trading relations.





Taking the technical and economic foundations as a starting point and thoroughly examining current developments on four continents, the book provides a global perspective on the state of the art in electricity market integration. in doing so, it focuses on the most relevant issues including transit of electricity, quantitative restrictions, market foreclosure and anti-competitive practices employed by the actors on electricity markets. In turn, the book carefully analyzes the regulatory framework provided by the WTO Agreements, the Energy Charter Treaty and other relevant preferential trade agreements. In its closing section, it moves beyond the applicable legal architecture to make concrete proposals on the future design of global trade rules specifically tailored to the electricity sector, which could provide a more reliable and transparent framework for the multilateral regulation of electricity trade.
Part I The Technical and Regulatory Foundations of Electricity Trade and the Emergence of International Electricity Markets
1 General Introduction
3(6)
1.1 The Current State of Research
5(1)
1.2 The Structure of This Book
6(3)
References
6(3)
2 Technical and Regulatory Foundations of Electricity Trade
9(32)
2.1 Technical Aspects of Electricity Systems
10(1)
2.1.1 The Physical Properties of Electricity
10(2)
2.1.2 Grid Dependency and Capacity Constraints
12(2)
2.1.3 Storage of Electricity
14(1)
2.1.4 The Evolution of Electricity Systems
15(3)
2.1.5 Contemporary Electricity Systems
18(2)
2.1.6 The Electricity System of the Future
20(3)
2.1.7 Interim Conclusions on the Technical Aspects of Electricity Systems
23(1)
2.2 Regulatory and Commercial Aspects of the Electricity Sector
24(1)
2.2.1 Development of Electricity Sector Regulation
25(2)
2.2.2 The Natural Monopoly Character of Transmission and Distribution
27(2)
2.2.3 Electricity Supply As a Public Service
29(2)
2.2.4 Regulation of Access to the Electricity Network
31(2)
2.2.5 Wholesale Markets for Electricity
33(2)
2.2.6 Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs)
35(1)
2.2.7 Interim Conclusions on Regulatory and Commercial Aspects
35(6)
References
37(4)
3 The Advent of International Electricity Trade
41(140)
3.1 The Benefits of International Electricity Trade
41(1)
3.1.1 Scale Benefits and Security of Supply
42(1)
3.1.2 Optimization of Generation Costs
43(1)
3.1.3 Benefits of Cross-Border Trade for the Integration of Renewable Energies
44(1)
3.2 The Emergence of Regional Electricity Markets
45(1)
3.2.1 The EU Internal Electricity Market
46(7)
3.2.2 Electricity Trade Among the US, Canada and Mexico
53(7)
3.2.3 The Southern African Power Pool
60(5)
3.2.4 The West African Power Pool
65(5)
3.2.5 The Central American Power Market
70(3)
3.2.6 Interim Conclusions on Regional Electricity Markets
73(1)
3.2.7 Steps Towards a Global Interconnection of Electricity Networks
74(107)
References
76(5)
4 Final Conclusions to Part
81(4)
Part II World Trade Law and the Regulation of Electricity Trade
5 WTO Law and the Regulation of Electricity Trade
85(2)
5.1 The Status of the Energy Sector in the WTO Legal Order
87(1)
5.1.1 The Absence of Energy-Specific Provisions in the WTO Agreements
88(2)
5.1.2 The Energy Sector in WTO Dispute Settlement
90(2)
5.2 Locating Electricity Within the Framework for Goods and Services
92(2)
5.2.1 General Considerations: `Goods' and `Services' in the WTO Legal Framework
94(2)
5.2.2 The Physical Characteristics of Electricity
96(1)
5.2.3 Commercial Aspects of Electricity
97(1)
5.2.4 The Status of Electricity in Domestic Legal Systems
98(4)
5.2.5 International Treaties and PTAs
102(2)
5.2.6 Treatment of Electricity in the Canada - Renewable Energy Dispute
104(3)
5.2.7 Treatment of Electricity in International Classification Instruments for Customs Purposes
107(1)
5.2.8 Electricity in Services Classification Instruments
108(5)
5.2.9 Conclusions on the Classification of Electricity and Consequences for the Application of the GATT and the GATS
113(1)
5.3 Electricity As a Subject of WTO Accessions
114(3)
5.4 Lessons from the Treatment of Electricity in WTO Dispute Settlement
117(6)
References
120(3)
6 The Energy Charter Treaty and the Regulation of Electricity Trade
123(6)
6.1 The Relationship Between the ECT and the WTO Agreements
125(4)
References
128(1)
7 Electricity in Other Preferential Trade Agreements
129(4)
References
132(1)
8 Final Conclusions to Part II
133(6)
Part III Barriers to Electricity Trade and the Role of World Trade Law
9 A Typology of International Trade Issues in the Electricity Sector
139(4)
References
141(2)
10 Market Structure As an Impediment to International Trade in Electricity: Vertical Integration, Monopolies and State Ownership
143(26)
10.1 Applying the Legal Disciplines: State-Owned Enterprises and Beyond
147(1)
10.1.1 Article XVII GATT
147(5)
10.1.2 Article VBI GATS
152(4)
10.1.3 Article XVI:2 (a) GATS
156(2)
10.1.4 Additional Disciplines in the ECT and PTAs
158(3)
10.2 Conclusions on Market Structure As an Impediment to International Electricity Trade
161(2)
10.3 Interlude: The Role of Private Actors in the Electricity Sector and the Application of WTO Law
163(6)
References
165(4)
11 Quantitative Import and Export Restrictions
169(28)
11.1 Electricity Import Restrictions
171(1)
11.1.1 Reasons for Restricting Electricity Imports
171(5)
11.2 Means of Restricting Cross-Border Electricity Flows
176(2)
11.3 Restrictions on Exports of Electricity
178(1)
11.4 Applying the Legal Discipline: Article XI GATT
179(1)
11.4.1 The Relationship Between Articles XI and III GATT
180(1)
11.4.2 Article XI GATT
181(6)
11.4.3 Exceptions: Article XI:2 and Article XX GATT
187(5)
11.4.4 Notification and Administration of Quantitative Restrictions
192(1)
11.5 Additional Disciplines in the ECT and FT As
192(1)
11.6 Conclusions on Import and Export Restrictions
193(4)
References
195(2)
12 Transit of Electricity
197(24)
12.1 Special Features of Electricity Transit
198(2)
12.2 Applying the Legal Discipline: Article V GATT
200(3)
12.2.1 Article V:2: `Freedom of Transit (...) Via the Routes Most Convenient'
203(1)
12.2.2 Capacity Establishment
204(2)
12.2.3 Network Access
206(1)
12.2.4 The Second Sentence of Article V:2: `No Distinction'
207(1)
12.2.5 Article V:3 and V:4 GATT
208(2)
12.2.6 Article V:5 and V:6 GATT: The Transit MFN Principles
210(1)
12.3 Transit Through Privately-Owned Electricity Infrastructure
211(1)
12.4 Transit Discipl ines in the ECT and PTAs
211(6)
12.5 Conclusions on Transit
217(4)
References
218(3)
13 Final Conclusions to Part III
221(4)
Part IV Towards a Coherent Regulatory Framework for International Electricity Trade
14 The Road Ahead for Multilateral Electricity Trade Regulation
225(28)
14.1 An Integrated Approach for the Energy Sector or Electricity-Specific Rules?
227(2)
14.2 Building Blocks of a Multilateral Regulatory Regime for Electricity Trade
229(1)
14.2.1 Classification of Goods and Services Along the Electricity Value Chain
229(5)
14.2.2 Principles on Electricity Transit
234(3)
14.2.3 Basic Principles on Good Regulatory Practice
237(5)
14.3 Finding the Right Forum: Where Should Electricity-Specific Trade Rules Be Defined?
242(1)
14.3.1 A Reformed Energy Charter Treaty
242(2)
14.3.2 Accommodating Rules on International Electricity Trade in the WTO Framework
244(4)
14.4 Final Conclusions to Part IV
248(5)
References
250(3)
15 General Conclusions
253(18)
Case Law
257(14)
References 271
Christopher Frey combines academic and practical experience in the field of international energy law and regulation. He has been working as a regulatory and policy advisor in the energy sector for several years and was previously an assistant to the chairman of the environmental committee in the European Parliament. He holds an LL.B. degree from the University of Groningen in the Netherlands and an LL.M. from Europa-Institut, Saarland University (Germany) where he specialized in EU Law and International Trade Law. While pursuing his doctoral dissertation he worked as a researcher and lecturer at the Universities of Dresden, Hamburg and Canterbury (NZ).   
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