| List of common abbreviations |
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xv | |
| List of tables |
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xvii | |
| List of figures |
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xix | |
| List of illustrations |
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xxi | |
| Acknowledgements |
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xxiii | |
| Abstract |
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xxv | |
| Companion website |
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xxvi | |
| Author's preface |
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xxvii | |
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Chapter 1 Written Questionnaires in the wider linguistic context |
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1 | (18) |
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1.1 Three basic types of language data and WQs |
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4 | (2) |
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1.2 Data in traditional dialect geography |
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6 | (5) |
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1.2.1 The Fieldworker Interview (FI) method |
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7 | (3) |
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1.2.2 Wenker's Written Questionnaire (WWQ) method |
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10 | (1) |
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1.3 Today's Written Questionnaire (WQ) methods |
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11 | (2) |
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1.4 The organization of this Book |
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13 | (6) |
| Part I. History & theory |
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Chapter 2 A history of written questionnaires in social dialectology |
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19 | (34) |
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2.1 German-language pioneers |
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21 | (2) |
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2.2 From Wenker's Deutscher Sprachatlas to Mitzka's Wortatlas |
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23 | (4) |
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25 | (2) |
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2.3 Dutch and Flemish WQs |
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27 | (1) |
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2.4 Early English language WQs in the US |
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28 | (8) |
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2.4.1 A new beginning: Alva L. Davis' (1948) WQ Survey |
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30 | (4) |
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2.4.2 Cassidy's and Allen's WQ studies |
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34 | (2) |
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2.5 Scotland and The Linguistic Atlas of Scotland |
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36 | (2) |
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2.6 WQs in Canada: A special case |
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38 | (10) |
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2.6.1 Canadian beginnings |
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39 | (3) |
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2.6.2 Survey of Canadian English (1972) |
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42 | (2) |
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44 | (1) |
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2.6.4 Dialect Topography of Canada (1991-2004) |
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45 | (1) |
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2.6.5 North American Regional Vocabulary Survey |
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46 | (2) |
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2.7 Other, more recent applications |
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48 | (3) |
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51 | (2) |
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Chapter 3 A comparison of data collection methodologies |
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53 | (34) |
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3.1 Corpus linguistics and WQs: A methodological comparison |
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54 | (11) |
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3.1.1 Limited linguistic contexts: Problem #1 |
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55 | (2) |
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3.1.2 Low-frequency items: Problem #2 |
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57 | (2) |
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3.1.3 (Positive) Evidence and negative evidence: Problem #3 |
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59 | (1) |
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3.1.4 Documentation of social backgrounds: Problem #4 |
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60 | (1) |
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3.1.5 Corpora and WQs: A comparison |
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61 | (4) |
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Linguistic examples: Attested and reported |
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64 | (1) |
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3.2 Comparison of elicitation techniques: WQ and FI |
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65 | (8) |
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3.2.1 The Linguistic Atlas of the Upper Midwest (1947-1953; 1973-6) |
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65 | (2) |
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3.2.2 Allen's WQ and FI data: Chambers' selection |
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67 | (1) |
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3.2.3 Selecting the best test |
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68 | (5) |
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Testing the data for equivalence |
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70 | (1) |
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Allen's original assessment |
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71 | (2) |
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3.3 Comparison of elicitation techniques: Sociolinguistic interview and WQ |
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73 | (13) |
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3.3.1 The Observer's Paradox and WQs |
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74 | (2) |
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76 | (1) |
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3.3.3 WQs and sociolinguistic interviews in Vancouver, Canada |
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77 | (10) |
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78 | (4) |
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82 | (4) |
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86 | (1) |
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Chapter 4 Types of traditional WQ variables |
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87 | (44) |
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87 | (18) |
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4.1.1 A Canadianism is dying out: chesterfield |
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88 | (7) |
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The rise and fall of chesterfield |
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92 | (3) |
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4.1.2 A Canadianism is staying put: The case of tap |
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95 | (4) |
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4.1.3 A Canadianism is entering the scene: TAKE UP #9 |
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99 | (6) |
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Interpreting the data on TAKE UP #9 |
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102 | (2) |
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Tracing TAKE UP #9 in the Canadian Oxford |
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104 | (1) |
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105 | (4) |
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107 | (2) |
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109 | (12) |
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4.3.1 Different from/than/to? |
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109 | (4) |
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4.3.2 Between you and me or I? |
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113 | (4) |
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The source of the confusion |
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114 | (3) |
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4.3.3 Telling time: 11:40 or twenty-to-twelve? |
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117 | (4) |
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4.4 Pronunciation: Phonemic variables |
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121 | (8) |
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122 | (3) |
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Yod-retention in avenue: An urban vs. rural split? |
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124 | (1) |
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4.4.2 Variation in lexical item vase |
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125 | (4) |
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129 | (2) |
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Chapter 5 World Englishes, multilingualism and written questionnaires |
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131 | (44) |
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5.1 Canadian English and the multilingual speaker |
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133 | (9) |
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5.1.1 From monolingual to multilingual perspectives |
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134 | (4) |
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5.1.2 From the national to the transnational: The sociolinguistics of globalization |
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138 | (6) |
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A new kind of sociolinguistics? |
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139 | (2) |
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Local literary practices and WQs |
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141 | (1) |
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5.2 World Englishes, Global Englishes: Concepts |
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142 | (2) |
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5.3 WQ Elicitation in World English contexts |
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144 | (12) |
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5.3.1 Some problems of WQs in contact scenarios |
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150 | (2) |
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5.3.2 Conceptualizing space in dialect geography |
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152 | (1) |
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5.3.3 Select morphosyntactic features of World Englishes |
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153 | (3) |
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5.4 English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) |
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156 | (15) |
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156 | (2) |
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5.4.2 Polling language teacher attitudes towards ELF |
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158 | (4) |
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Group identity, mutual intelligibility and ELF |
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161 | (1) |
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5.4.3 Linguistic error or innovation? The case for WQs |
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162 | (2) |
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5.4.4 Discovering variables and variants |
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164 | (12) |
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164 | (2) |
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Pragmatic innovation: Idiomaticity in ELF |
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166 | (2) |
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Some principles for variable detection |
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168 | (3) |
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5.5 Addendum: Global Englishes and expert WQs |
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171 | (2) |
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173 | (2) |
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Chapter 6 WQ data and linguistic theory |
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175 | (50) |
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6.1 Real time and Apparent time |
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176 | (4) |
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178 | (2) |
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6.2 The S-curve of linguistic change |
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180 | (4) |
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6.2.1 The case of N/V+ing + N compounds |
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181 | (3) |
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6.3 Change from above, change from below: Social class |
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184 | (1) |
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185 | (6) |
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6.4.1 Principle 1: Stable situations: Women use the standard more than men |
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185 | (2) |
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6.4.2 Principle 2: Women use more standard forms in changes from above |
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187 | (1) |
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6.4.3 Principle 3: Women use more of the incoming variant in changes from below |
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188 | (1) |
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6.4.4 Indexing social meaning: Gender |
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189 | (2) |
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6.5 Border effects: Autonomy vs. heteronomy |
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191 | (9) |
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6.5.1 Insights from Dialect Topography |
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193 | (5) |
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A cross-border continuum: St. Stephen (New Brunswick) and Calais (Maine) |
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193 | (3) |
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Political borders as linguistic divides: Shone in Ontario and New York |
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196 | (1) |
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Heightened differences in immediate border regions |
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197 | (1) |
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6.5.2 Insights from NARVS: The North American lexical perspective |
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198 | (2) |
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6.6 Sociohistorical framework and explanations |
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200 | (8) |
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6.6.1 Canada's five major immigration waves |
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201 | (1) |
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6.6.2 Trudgill and Schneider: Two complementary approaches? |
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202 | (6) |
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Trudgill's (2004) New-dialect Formation Theory |
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203 | (2) |
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Schneider's (2007) Dynamic Model |
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205 | (3) |
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6.7 Indexing social meaning |
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208 | (6) |
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6.7.1 Three "waves" in sociolinguistics |
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209 | (2) |
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6.7.2 Yod-dropping in CanE as an indexical field |
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211 | (3) |
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6.8 Homogeneity and heterogeneity |
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214 | (7) |
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6.8.1 Homogenization on the national level |
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215 | (1) |
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Homogeneity & Standard Canadian English |
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216 | (1) |
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6.8.2 Homogenization on the continental level |
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216 | (1) |
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6.8.3 Heterogenization (diversification) |
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217 | (4) |
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221 | (4) |
| Part II. Practice |
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Chapter 7 Questionnaire design and data collection |
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225 | (50) |
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7.1 Planning the questionnaire: Purpose & research question |
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226 | (1) |
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7.2 Structure of the questionnaire |
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227 | (7) |
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7.2.1 Questionnaire length |
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231 | (2) |
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7.2.2 Choice of medium: Paper or online? |
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233 | (1) |
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234 | (36) |
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Self-reporting and community-reporting |
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235 | (1) |
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236 | (9) |
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237 | (1) |
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237 | (1) |
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Multiple-Choice items: Binary (nominal) & categorical |
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238 | (1) |
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238 | (2) |
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Multiple-items scales in social dialectology |
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240 | (1) |
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241 | (2) |
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243 | (1) |
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244 | (1) |
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7.3.2 From raw questions to questionnaire items |
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245 | (4) |
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7.3.3 Self-reporting linguistic behaviour |
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249 | (3) |
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Inventories vs. social correlations |
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249 | (1) |
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Socio-syntactic reformulations |
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250 | (1) |
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Magnitude Estimation Tasks and grammaticality judgements |
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251 | (1) |
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7.3.4 Self-reporting language attitudes and perceptions |
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252 | (6) |
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252 | (2) |
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254 | (4) |
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7.3.5 Community-reporting of linguistic behaviour |
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258 | (1) |
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7.3.6 Mitigating prescriptive influence: Framing the questions |
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259 | (9) |
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259 | (2) |
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Using informal language in the questionnaire |
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261 | (1) |
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261 | (1) |
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Some tentative insights: How to ask and how better not |
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262 | (3) |
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Defining evaluative categories |
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265 | (1) |
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Harnessing a pedagogical phonetic alphabet for social dialectology? |
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266 | (1) |
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Order of stimuli and trial items |
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267 | (1) |
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Intuitive formatting & item ordering |
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267 | (1) |
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7.3.7 Piloting and revising the questionnaire |
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268 | (1) |
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7.3.8 Social background questions |
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269 | (1) |
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270 | (4) |
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7.4.1 Random or judgement sampling? |
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270 | (3) |
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7.4.2 A combined sampling method |
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273 | (1) |
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274 | (1) |
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Chapter 8 Working with WQ data |
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275 | (44) |
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8.1 The Dialect Topography portal |
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275 | (9) |
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8.1.1 Dialect Topography questionnaire |
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277 | (1) |
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8.1.2 "View Results": One variable in one location |
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277 | (3) |
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8.1.3 View Results: Comparing two locations |
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280 | (3) |
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283 | (1) |
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8.2 Calculating social indices |
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284 | (12) |
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8.2.1 The Regionality Index (RI) |
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285 | (7) |
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290 | (1) |
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291 | (1) |
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Adjusting the RI for multilingual respondents |
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291 | (1) |
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8.2.2 Language Use Index (LUI) |
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292 | (1) |
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8.2.3 Ethnic Orientation Index (EOI) |
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293 | (1) |
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8.2.4 Occupational Mobility Index (OMI) and Social Class (SC) |
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294 | (2) |
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8.3 Data-readying in Excel |
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296 | (23) |
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8.3.1 Importing DT data into Excel |
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296 | (6) |
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298 | (1) |
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299 | (1) |
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300 | (2) |
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8.3.2 Three basic Excel commands |
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302 | (11) |
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302 | (2) |
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304 | (3) |
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Exercises on the file "GH (All) - ql-different" |
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307 | (1) |
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Multiple conditions: COUNTIFS |
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308 | (2) |
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310 | (1) |
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More exercises on the file "GH (All) - ql-different" |
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311 | (1) |
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COUNTIFS with indices: RI |
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311 | (2) |
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313 | (1) |
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8.3.3 Beyond manual commands: Pivot tables |
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313 | (6) |
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Chapter 9 Statistical testing with R |
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319 | (42) |
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Downloading and installing R |
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320 | (1) |
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Descriptive & Analytical statistics |
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321 | (1) |
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9.1 Why use statistical tools? |
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321 | (2) |
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9.2 Preliminaries: Types of variables and forming a hypothesis |
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323 | (5) |
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9.2.1 Types of variables in traditional WQs |
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324 | (2) |
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9.2.2 Formulating a hypothesis |
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326 | (2) |
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9.3 Univariate analytical statistics |
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328 | (11) |
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9.3.1 One dependent variable |
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329 | (4) |
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9.3.2 One dependent variable, one independent variable |
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333 | (2) |
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9.3.3 Converting a categorical variable into an ordinal variable |
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335 | (4) |
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9.4 Multivariate Analysis with R |
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339 | (20) |
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9.4.1 Linear models: Hierarchical Configural Frequency Analysis |
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340 | (6) |
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9.4.2 (Non-linear) logistic regression modelling |
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346 | (23) |
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Importing "data frames" into R |
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348 | (1) |
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The case for data import checking: Two errors |
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349 | (2) |
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A first logistic regression with interactions |
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351 | (3) |
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When you get a "Warning message" |
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354 | (1) |
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Logistic regression modelling without interactions |
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355 | (4) |
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359 | (2) |
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361 | (14) |
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10.1 The revival of WQs in social dialectology |
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362 | (4) |
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10.2 WQs and linguistic variables |
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366 | (3) |
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369 | (4) |
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10.3.1 Guidelines for WQ design in social dialectology |
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369 | (1) |
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10.3.2 WQs, geographical space, and potential risks |
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370 | (2) |
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10.3.3 WQs and WQ-internal checks and controls |
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372 | (1) |
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10.4 WQs: The delayed method |
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373 | (2) |
| References |
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375 | (20) |
| Index |
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395 | |
