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E-grāmata: Commonsense Reasoning

4.00/5 (12 ratings by Goodreads)

Erik T. Mueller (IBM Watson Group and IBM Research, New York, USA)

Formāts: PDF+DRM
Izdošanas datums: 26-Jul-2010
Izdevniecība: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers In
Valoda: eng
ISBN-13: 9780080476612

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Formāts: PDF+DRM
Izdošanas datums: 26-Jul-2010
Izdevniecība: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers In
Valoda: eng
ISBN-13: 9780080476612

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To endow computers with common sense is one of the major long-term goals of Artificial Intelligence research. One approach to this problem is to formalize commonsense reasoning using mathematical logic. Commonsense Reasoning is a detailed, high-level reference on logic-based commonsense reasoning. It uses the event calculus, a highly powerful and usable tool for commonsense reasoning, which Erik T. Mueller demonstrates as the most effective tool for the broadest range of applications. He provides an up-to-date work promoting the use of the event calculus for commonsense reasoning, and bringing into one place information scattered across many books and papers. Mueller shares the knowledge gained in using the event calculus and extends the literature with detailed event calculus solutions to problems that span many areas of the commonsense world.

· Covers key areas of commonsense reasoning including action, change, defaults, space, and mental states.
· The first full book on commonsense reasoning to use the event calculus.
· Contextualizes the event calculus within the framework of commonsense reasoning, introducing the event calculus as the best method overall.
· Focuses on how to use the event calculus formalism to perform commonsense reasoning, while existing papers and books examine the formalisms themselves.
· Includes fully worked out proofs and circumscriptions for every example.
· Describes software tools that can be downloaded and used for automated commonsense reasoning, and real-world applications that have been built using the event calculus.

To endow computers with common sense is one of the major long-term goals of Artificial Intelligence research. One approach to this problem is to formalize commonsense reasoning using mathematical logic. Commonsense Reasoning is a detailed, high-level reference on logic-based commonsense reasoning. It uses the event calculus, a highly powerful and usable tool for commonsense reasoning, which Erik T. Mueller demonstrates as the most effective tool for the broadest range of applications. He provides an up-to-date work promoting the use of the event calculus for commonsense reasoning, and bringing into one place information scattered across many books and papers. Mueller shares the knowledge gained in using the event calculus and extends the literature with detailed event calculus solutions to problems that span many areas of the commonsense world.

• Covers key areas of commonsense reasoning including action, change, defaults, space, and mental states.
• The first full book on commonsense reasoning to use the event calculus.
• Contextualizes the event calculus within the framework of commonsense reasoning, introducing the event calculus as the best method overall.
• Focuses on how to use the event calculus formalism to perform commonsense reasoning, while existing papers and books examine the formalisms themselves.
• Includes fully worked out proofs and circumscriptions for every example.
• Describes software tools that can be downloaded and used for automated commonsense reasoning, and real-world applications that have been built using the event calculus.

Recenzijas

A comprehensive exposition of reasoning about actions and change using the circumscription-based Event Calculus. The book has an excellent up-to-date bibliography on actions and change.” --Chitta Baral, Arizona State University

Central to the idea of Artificial Intelligence is getting computers to understand simple facts about people and everyday lifewhat we call Common Sense. Amid the technical discussions about inference algorithms and knowledge representation, a larger question arises: What have we actually learned in the past 30 years about how to put Commonsense knowledge in computers? Look no further than Erik Mueller's Commonsense Reasoning for a deep and insightful survey of the state of the art in this topic. Some say that Commonsense defies logic; here Mueller shows that logic, at least, can put up a good fight.” --Henry Lieberman, MIT Media Laboratory

Erik Mueller has given the most thorough treatment of common sense knowledge and reasoning yet to appear.” --John McCarthy, Stanford University

The strength of this book is that it uses a uniform representation formalism, the event calculus, to solve a variety of commonsense reasoning problems. Researchers will find the book an inspiring tool which provides many ideas for applications of action formalisms. Thanks to both the exemplary presentation style and numerous examples, the book is also well-suited for teachers and students alike.” --Michael Thielscher, Dresden University of Technology

Developing systems that can perform actions and deal with change is a major challenge in intelligent system design, because it requires the construction of sophisticated models for knowledge representation and reasoning. This book provides important ideas and methods which can be used to model commonsense reasoning about events in complex and dynamic environments. The content is well thought out, and difficult topics are presented in highly accessible ways. The author tells a compelling story that highlights the utility of event calculus for applications that require commonsense models of action and change.” --Mary-Anne Williams, University of Technology, Sydney, and Knowledge Representation and Reasoning Inc.

"People with better commonsense than others are better observers of context and have more patterns that are more readily accessible. Nevertheless, commonsense reasoning is an important area of study. Mueller's book will be valuable to those involved in this field." --Robert W. Ferguson, Software Quality Professional 12/06-2/07

Foreword

xvii

Preface

xix

Introduction

(18)

What Is Commonsense Reasoning?

(1)

Key Issues of Commonsense Reasoning

(6)

Summary

(1)

Brief History of Commonsense Reasoning

(2)

Logical Methods

(1)

Nonlogical Methods

(1)

The Event Calculus

(9)

Events, Fluents, and Timepoints

(1)

A Simple Example

(1)

Automated Event Calculus Reasoning

(1)

Bibliographic Notes

(6)

PART I Foundations

The Event Calculus

(36)

First-Order Logic

(3)

Syntax of First-Order Logic

(1)

Semantics of First-Order Logic

(1)

Proof Theory

(1)

Many-Sorted First-Order Logic

(1)

Notational Conventions

(1)

Event Calculus Basics

(1)

Event Calculus Sorts

(1)

Event Calculus Predicates

(1)

States of a Fluent

(1)

Event Calculus Axiomatizations

(7)

The (Continuous) Event Calculus

(3)

The Discrete Event Calculus

(3)

Choosing between the Event Calculus and the Discrete Event Calculus

(1)

Reification

(2)

Unique Names Axioms

(1)

Conditions

(1)

Circumscription

(3)

Computing Circumscription

(1)

Example: Circumscription of Happens

(1)

Example: Circumscription of Initiates

(1)

Domain Descriptions

(6)

Example: Sleep

(2)

Inconsistency

(1)

Reasoning Types

(14)

Deduction and Temporal Projection

(1)

Abduction and Planning

(1)

Example: Sleep Abduction

(1)

Postdiction

(1)

Model Finding

(1)

Bibliographic Notes

(8)

Exercises

(3)

PART II Commonsense Phenomena

The Effects of Events

(20)

Positive and Negative Effect Axioms

(8)

Example: Telephone

(7)

Effect Axiom Idioms

(1)

Preconditions

(2)

Fluent Preconditions

(1)

Action Preconditions

(1)

Example: Walking through a Door

(1)

State Constraints

(9)

Example: Telephone Revisited

(1)

Bibliographic Notes

(3)

Exercises

(2)

The Triggering of Events

(10)

Trigger Axioms

(3)

Example: Alarm Clock

(3)

Preventing Repeated Triggering

(5)

Example: Bank Account Service Fee

(4)

Triggered Fluents

(2)

Bibliographic Notes

(1)

Exercises

(1)

The Commonsense Law of Inertia

(16)

Representation of the Commonsense Law of Inertia

(5)

Frame Problem

(1)

Classical Frame Axioms

(1)

Explanation Closure Axioms

(1)

Minimizing Event Occurrences

(1)

Introduction of Initiates Predicate

(1)

Minimizing Event Effects

(1)

Introduction of Terminates Predicate

(1)

Discussion

(1)

Representing Release from the Commonsense Law of Inertia

(4)

Example: Yale Shooting Scenario

(1)

Releasing from Inertia

(1)

Restoring Inertia

(1)

Explanation Closure Axioms for ReleasedAt

(1)

Example: Russian Turkey Scenario

(1)

Release Axioms

(7)

Bibliographic Notes

(4)

Exercises

(2)

Indirect Effects of Events

101

(30)

Effect Axioms

101

(4)

Example: Carrying a Book

101

(3)

Discussion

104

(1)

Primitive and Derived Fluents

105

(2)

Example: Device

105

(2)

Release Axioms and State Constraints

107

(3)

Example: Carrying a Book Revisited

107

(3)

Effect Constraints

110

(1)

Example: Carrying a Book Revisited

110

(1)

Causal Constraints

111

(6)

Example: Thielscher's Circuit

114

(3)

Trigger Axioms

117

(14)

Example: Thielscher's Circuit with Delays

117

(3)

Example: Shanahan's Circuit with Delays

120

(5)

Bibliographic Notes

125

(5)

Exercises

130

(1)

Continuous Change

131

(12)

Trajectory Axioms

131

(5)

Example: Falling Object

131

(1)

Example: Falling Object with Events

132

(4)

Introduction of Trajectory Predicate

136

(1)

Antitrajectory Axioms

136

(3)

Example: Hot Air Balloon

137

(2)

Using AntiTrajectory Instead of Releases

139

(4)

Example: Falling Object with AntiTrajectory

139

(2)

Bibliographic Notes

141

(1)

Exercises

142

(1)

Concurrent Events

143

(12)

Restricting Concurrency

143

(3)

State Constraints

143

(1)

Event Occurrence Constraints

144

(2)

Discussion

146

(1)

Cumulative and Canceling Effects

146

(9)

Example: Camera with Flash

147

(2)

Example: Moving Robot

149

(3)

Bibliographic Notes

152

(2)

Exercises

154

(1)

Nondeterministic Effects of Events

155

(10)

Determining Fluents

155

(4)

Example: Roulette Wheel

156

(3)

Disjunctive Event Axioms

159

(6)

Example: Running and Driving

159

(2)

Bibliographic Notes

161

(1)

Exercises

161

(4)

PART III Commonsense Domains

Space

165

(22)

Relational Space

165

(7)

Basic Representation

165

(1)

Extended Representation

166

(3)

Example: Moving a Newspaper and a Box

169

(3)

Metric Space

172

(8)

Example: Two Baseballs Colliding

173

(7)

Object Identity

180

(7)

Example: One Screen

181

(2)

Example: Two Screens

183

(1)

Bibliographic Notes

184

(1)

Exercises

185

(2)

The Mental States of Agents

187

(38)

Beliefs, Goals, and Plans

187

(20)

Reactive Behavior

187

(1)

Goal-Driven Behavior

188

(1)

Formalization

188

(3)

Example: Hungry Cat Scenario

191

(16)

Emotions

207

(18)

Emotion Theory

207

(1)

Formalization

208

(8)

Example: Lottery

216

(3)

Bibliographic Notes

219

(2)

Exercises

221

(4)

PART IV Default Reasoning

Default Reasoning

225

(16)

Atemporal Default Reasoning

225

(2)

Temporal Default Reasoning

227

(1)

Default Reasoning Method

227

(1)

Defaults and the Qualification Problem

228

(4)

Example: Device Revisited

229

(1)

Example: Broken Device

230

(1)

Strong and Weak Qualifications

231

(1)

Example: Erratic Device

231

(1)

Default Events and Properties

232

(9)

Default Events

232

(1)

Default Properties

233

(1)

Bibliographic Notes

234

(4)

Exercises

238

(3)

PART V Programs and Applications

The Discrete Event Calculus Reasoner

241

(12)

Discrete Event Calculus Reasoner Architecture

241

(1)

Encoding Satisfiability Problems

242

(1)

Simple Examples

242

(4)

Deduction

242

(2)

Abduction

244

(1)

Postdiction

244

(1)

Model Finding

245

(1)

Example: Telephone

246

(3)

Discrete Event Calculus Reasoner Language

249

(4)

Bibliographic Notes

249

(2)

Exercises

251

(2)

Applications

253

(18)

Business Systems

253

(8)

Payment Protocols

253

(4)

Workflow Modeling

257

(4)

Natural Language Understanding

261

(4)

Story Understanding

262

(3)

Vision

265

(6)

Bibliographic Notes

267

(1)

Exercises

268

(3)

PART VI Logical and Nonlogical Methods

Logics for Commonsense Reasoning

271

(28)

The Situation Calculus

271

(4)

Relational and Functional Fluents

271

(1)

Actions

272

(1)

Action Effects

272

(1)

Action Preconditions

273

(1)

Equivalence of the Situation Calculus and the Event Calculus

273

(1)

Discussion

274

(1)

The Features and Fluents Framework

275

(4)

Temporal Action Logics

275

(4)

Action Languages

279

(6)

C+

279

(6)

The Fluent Calculus

285

(3)

States

286

(1)

Plus and Minus Macros

286

(1)

State Update Axioms

286

(1)

Nondeterministic Effects

287

(1)

Concurrent Actions

287

(1)

Discussion

288

(1)

Discussion and Summary

288

(11)

Bibliographic Notes

290

(8)

Exercises

298

(1)

Nonlogical Methods for Commonsense Reasoning

299

(22)

Qualitative Reasoning

299

(1)

QSIM

299

(1)

Analogical Processing

300

(3)

Structure-Mapping Engine

300

(3)

Probabilistic Reasoning

303

(3)

Probability and Action

303

(3)

Bayesian Networks

306

(1)

Society of Mind

306

(15)

ThoughtTreasure

307

(2)

Polyscheme

309

(3)

EM-ONE

312

(2)

Bibliographic Notes

314

(3)

Exercises

317

(4)

PART VII Conclusion

Conclusion

321

(40)

What Was Accomplished?

321

(1)

What Is the Event Calculus?

321

(1)

How Is the Event Calculus Used?

322

(1)

Where Is This Leading?

322

(1)

Closing Remarks

323

(4)

Bibliographic Notes

324

(3)

PART VIII Appendices

A. Logical Foundations

327

(16)

A.1 Relations

327

(1)

A.2 Inductive Definitions

328

(1)

A.3 First-Order Logic

329

(1)

A.3.1 Syntax of First-Order Logic

329

(2)

A.3.2 Semantics of First-Order Logic

331

(2)

A.3.3 Proof Theory

333

(1)

A.4 Many-Sorted First-Order Logic

334

(1)

A.4.1 Syntax of Many-Sorted First-Order Logic

334

(2)

A.4.2 Semantics of Many-Sorted First-Order Logic

336

(1)

A.5 Second-Order Logic

336

(1)

A.6 Datatypes

337

(1)

A.6.1 Real Numbers

337

(1)

A.6.2 Lists

338

(1)

A.7 Circumscription

339

(1)

A.7.1 Definition of Circumscription

339

(1)

A.7.2 Example: Circumscription of P(A)

340

(1)

A.7.3 Parallel Circumscription

340

(1)

Bibliographic Notes

341

(2)

B. Equivalence of EC and DEC

343

(8)

C. Events with Duration

351

(2)

Bibliographic Notes

352

(1)

D. Answers to Selected Exercises

353

(8)

References

361

(30)

Index

391

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