Preface to the Third Edition |
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xv | |
Acknowledgments |
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xvii | |
Author |
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xix | |
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Chapter 1 Introduction to Electric and Hybrid Vehicles |
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1 | (22) |
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3 | (1) |
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1.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles |
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3 | (1) |
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1.3 Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Components |
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4 | (3) |
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1.4 Vehicle Mass and Performance |
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7 | (1) |
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1.5 Electric Motor and Engine Ratings |
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8 | (1) |
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1.6 Electric and Hybrid Vehicle History |
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9 | (7) |
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10 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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11 | (1) |
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12 | (1) |
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1.6.4.1 GM Impact 3 (1993 Completed) |
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12 | (1) |
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13 | (1) |
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1.6.5 Recent EVs and HEVs |
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13 | (3) |
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1.7 Well-to-Wheel Analysis |
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16 | (1) |
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17 | (4) |
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1.8.1 Efficiency Comparison |
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18 | (2) |
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1.8.2 Pollution Comparison |
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20 | (1) |
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1.8.3 Capital and Operating Cost Comparison |
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20 | (1) |
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1.8.4 US Dependence on Foreign Oil |
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20 | (1) |
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1.9 Electric Vehicle Market |
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21 | (2) |
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22 | (1) |
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22 | (1) |
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Chapter 2 Vehicle Mechanics |
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23 | (28) |
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23 | (2) |
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25 | (2) |
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27 | (2) |
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2.4 Dynamics of Vehicle Motion |
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29 | (1) |
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30 | (2) |
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2.5.1 Force-Velocity Characteristics |
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30 | (2) |
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2.5.2 Maximum Gradability |
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32 | (1) |
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2.6 Velocity and Acceleration |
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32 | (7) |
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2.6.1 Constant FTR, Level Road |
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33 | (1) |
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34 | (1) |
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2.6.1.2 Distance Traversed |
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34 | (1) |
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35 | (1) |
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36 | (1) |
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2.6.2 Non-constant FTR, General Acceleration |
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37 | (2) |
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2.7 Tire-Road Force Mechanics |
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39 | (7) |
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40 | (1) |
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2.7.2 Traction Force at Tire-Road Interface |
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41 | (1) |
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2.7.3 Force Transmission at Tire-Road Interface |
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42 | (1) |
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43 | (1) |
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2.7.5 Traction Limit and Control |
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44 | (2) |
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2.8 Propulsion System Design |
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46 | (5) |
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46 | (3) |
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49 | (2) |
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Chapter 3 Vehicle Architectures and Design |
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51 | (36) |
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51 | (1) |
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3.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles |
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52 | (8) |
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3.2.1 Hybrids Based on Architecture |
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53 | (1) |
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3.2.1.1 Series and Parallel Hybrids |
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53 | (2) |
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3.2.1.2 Series--Parallel Hybrid |
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55 | (1) |
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3.2.1.3 Series--Parallel 2 × 2 Hybrid |
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56 | (1) |
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3.2.2 Hybrids Based on Transmission Assembly |
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57 | (1) |
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3.2.2.1 Pre- and Post-transmission Hybrids |
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57 | (1) |
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3.2.2.2 P0--4 Hybrid Architectures |
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58 | (1) |
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3.2.2.3 48 V Hybrid Architectures |
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59 | (1) |
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3.2.3 Hybrids Based on Degree of Hybridization |
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60 | (1) |
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3.3 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle |
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60 | (1) |
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3.4 Electric Vehicles: Skateboard Chassis |
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61 | (1) |
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3.5 Powertrain Component Sizing |
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62 | (11) |
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3.5.1 EV Powertrain Sizing |
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63 | (1) |
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3.5.1.1 Initial Acceleration |
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64 | (1) |
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3.5.1.2 Rated Vehicle Velocity |
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65 | (1) |
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65 | (1) |
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3.5.1.4 Maximum Gradability |
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66 | (1) |
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3.5.2 HEV Powertrain Sizing |
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66 | (1) |
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3.5.2.1 Rated Vehicle Velocity |
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67 | (1) |
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3.5.2.2 Initial Acceleration |
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68 | (1) |
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68 | (1) |
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3.5.2.4 Maximum Gradability |
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69 | (1) |
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3.5.3 HEV Powertrain Sizing Example |
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69 | (1) |
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3.5.3.1 Total Power Required: Initial Acceleration |
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70 | (1) |
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3.5.3.2 IC Engine Power: Cruising Speed |
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71 | (1) |
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72 | (1) |
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73 | (1) |
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73 | (1) |
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3.6 Mass Analysis and Packaging |
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73 | (2) |
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3.7 Mission-Based Design with Vehicle Simulation |
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75 | (12) |
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3.7.1 Vehicle Simulation Model |
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75 | (2) |
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3.7.2 Standard Drive Cycles |
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77 | (6) |
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83 | (1) |
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84 | (3) |
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Chapter 4 Autonomous Vehicles |
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87 | (18) |
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4.1 Five Levels of Autonomous Driving |
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88 | (1) |
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4.2 Autonomous Vehicle Functional Architecture |
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89 | (3) |
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90 | (1) |
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4.2.2 External Communications |
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91 | (1) |
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4.3 Software Stack: Perception, Localization, Path Planning and Control |
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92 | (7) |
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92 | (2) |
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94 | (1) |
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95 | (1) |
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95 | (1) |
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4.3.3.2 Behavioral Planning |
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95 | (1) |
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96 | (2) |
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98 | (1) |
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4.4 Autopilot and Actuators |
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99 | (2) |
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99 | (1) |
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99 | (1) |
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100 | (1) |
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4.5 Safety Enhancements with Level 1 Autonomous Driving |
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101 | (4) |
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101 | (1) |
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102 | (1) |
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102 | (1) |
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102 | (1) |
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103 | (2) |
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Chapter 5 Battery Energy Storage |
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105 | (54) |
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5.1 Batteries in Electric and Hybrid Vehicles |
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106 | (2) |
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108 | (4) |
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5.2.1 Battery Cell Structure |
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108 | (1) |
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109 | (3) |
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112 | (7) |
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112 | (1) |
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5.3.2 Open-Circuit Voltage |
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113 | (1) |
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114 | (1) |
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114 | (1) |
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115 | (1) |
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116 | (1) |
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117 | (1) |
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117 | (1) |
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117 | (1) |
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118 | (1) |
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118 | (1) |
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119 | (1) |
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119 | (1) |
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5.4 Electrochemical Cell Fundamentals |
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119 | (9) |
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5.4.1 Thermodynamic Voltage |
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120 | (3) |
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5.4.2 Electrolysis and Faradaic Current |
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123 | (1) |
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124 | (2) |
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126 | (1) |
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5.4.5 Electrical Double Layer |
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127 | (1) |
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128 | (1) |
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5.4.7 Concentration Polarization |
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128 | (1) |
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128 | (13) |
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5.5.1 Electric Circuit Models |
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129 | (1) |
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5.5.1.1 Basic Battery Model |
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130 | (2) |
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5.5.1.2 Run-Time Battery Model |
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132 | (1) |
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5.5.1.3 Impedance-Based Model |
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133 | (1) |
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5.5.1.4 First Principle Model |
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133 | (1) |
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134 | (2) |
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5.5.2.1 Range Prediction with Constant Current Discharge |
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136 | (3) |
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5.5.2.2 Range Prediction with Power Density Approach |
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139 | (2) |
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141 | (8) |
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141 | (1) |
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5.6.2 Nickel-Cadmium Battery |
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142 | (1) |
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5.6.3 Nickel-Metal-Hydride (NiMH) Battery |
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143 | (1) |
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144 | (1) |
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145 | (1) |
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146 | (1) |
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5.6.7 Sodium-Sulfur Battery |
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146 | (1) |
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5.6.8 Sodium-Metal-Chloride Battery |
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146 | (1) |
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5.6.9 Research and Development for Advanced Batteries |
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147 | (2) |
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5.7 Battery Pack Management |
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149 | (10) |
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5.7.1 Battery Management System |
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150 | (1) |
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151 | (1) |
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5.7.3 Battery Cell Balancing |
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152 | (1) |
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153 | (1) |
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154 | (2) |
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156 | (3) |
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Chapter 6 Alternative Energy Storage |
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159 | (20) |
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159 | (10) |
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6.1.1 Fuel Cell Characteristics |
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161 | (1) |
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162 | (1) |
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6.1.2.1 Alkaline Fuel Cell |
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162 | (1) |
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6.1.2.2 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell |
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162 | (1) |
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6.1.2.3 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell |
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162 | (1) |
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6.1.2.4 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell |
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162 | (1) |
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6.1.2.5 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell |
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162 | (1) |
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6.1.2.6 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell |
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162 | (2) |
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164 | (1) |
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6.1.4 Hydrogen Storage Systems |
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164 | (1) |
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165 | (1) |
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6.1.6 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle |
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166 | (1) |
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6.1.6.1 Case Study: Toyota Mirai FCEV |
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167 | (2) |
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169 | (4) |
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6.2.1 Symmetrical Ultracapacitors |
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169 | (2) |
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6.2.2 Asymmetrical Ultracapacitors |
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171 | (1) |
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6.2.3 Ultracapacitor Modeling |
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172 | (1) |
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6.3 Compressed Air Storage |
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173 | (1) |
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174 | (5) |
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176 | (1) |
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177 | (2) |
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Chapter 7 Electric Machines |
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179 | (58) |
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7.1 Simple Electric Machines |
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180 | (6) |
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7.1.1 Fundamental Machine Phenomena |
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180 | (1) |
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7.1.1.1 Motional Voltage B |
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180 | (1) |
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7.1.1.2 Electromagnetic Force |
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181 | (1) |
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181 | (1) |
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181 | (2) |
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183 | (1) |
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7.1.2.3 DC Machine Back-EMF and Torque |
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184 | (1) |
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7.1.3 Simple Reluctance Machine |
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185 | (1) |
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7.2 Materials for Electric Machines |
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186 | (4) |
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186 | (1) |
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187 | (3) |
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190 | (2) |
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7.4 Three-Phase AC Machines |
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192 | (12) |
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7.4.1 Sinusoidal Stator Windings |
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193 | (2) |
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195 | (1) |
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7.4.3 Three-Phase Sinusoidal Windings |
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195 | (1) |
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7.4.4 Space Vector Representation |
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195 | (4) |
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7.4.4.1 Interpretation of Space Vectors |
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199 | (1) |
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7.4.4.2 Inverse Relations |
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199 | (1) |
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7.4.4.3 Resultant mmf in a Balanced System |
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200 | (1) |
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7.4.4.4 Mutual Inductance Lm and Induced Stator Voltage |
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201 | (1) |
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7.4.5 Types of AC Machines |
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202 | (1) |
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202 | (2) |
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204 | (8) |
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7.5.1 Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit |
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206 | (2) |
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7.5.2 Simplified Torque Expression |
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208 | (3) |
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7.5.3 Regenerative Braking |
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211 | (1) |
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7.6 Permanent Magnet Machines |
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212 | (8) |
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7.6.1 PM Synchronous Motors |
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213 | (1) |
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7.6.1.1 Surface PMSM Flux and Torque |
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214 | (3) |
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7.6.1.2 Interior PMSM Flux and Torque |
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217 | (1) |
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7.6.2 PM Brushless DC Motors |
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218 | (1) |
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7.6.2.1 PM BLDC Machine Modeling |
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218 | (2) |
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220 | (7) |
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7.7.1 Synchronous Reluctance Machines |
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220 | (2) |
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7.7.2 PM Assisted Synchronous Reluctance Machines |
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222 | (1) |
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7.7.3 Switched Reluctance Machines |
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222 | (1) |
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7.7.3.1 SRM Principles of Operation |
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223 | (2) |
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7.7.3.2 Energy Conversion |
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225 | (1) |
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7.7.3.3 Torque Production |
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226 | (1) |
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7.8 Traction IPM Machine Design |
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227 | (10) |
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7.8.1 Initial Machine Sizing: Electromagnetic Design |
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228 | (1) |
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228 | (1) |
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7.8.3 Mechanical/Structural Analysis |
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228 | (1) |
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7.8.4 Stator and Winding Designs |
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229 | (1) |
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230 | (4) |
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234 | (1) |
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235 | (2) |
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Chapter 8 Control of AC Machines |
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237 | (28) |
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8.1 Vector Control of AC Motors |
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237 | (2) |
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8.2 AC Machine Modeling for Controls |
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239 | (5) |
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8.2.1 Rotating Reference Frame |
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240 | (1) |
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8.2.2 Induction Machine dq Model |
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241 | (1) |
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8.2.3 Power and Electromagnetic Torque |
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242 | (2) |
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8.3 Induction Machine Vector Control |
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244 | (5) |
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8.3.1 Rotor-Flux-Oriented Vector Control |
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244 | (2) |
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8.3.2 Direct and Indirect Vector Controls |
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246 | (1) |
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8.3.2.1 Direct Vector Control |
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246 | (2) |
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8.3.2.2 Indirect Vector Control |
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248 | (1) |
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8.3.2.3 Vector Control Implementation |
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248 | (1) |
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8.4 PM Synchronous Machine Vector Control |
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249 | (8) |
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8.4.1 Voltage and Torque in Reference Frames |
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249 | (1) |
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8.4.2 PMSM Simulation Model |
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250 | (1) |
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8.4.3 PM Synchronous Machine Drives |
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251 | (1) |
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252 | (1) |
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8.4.3.2 Current and Voltage Controllers |
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252 | (1) |
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8.4.4 IPM Synchronous Machine Controls |
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253 | (1) |
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8.4.4.1 Current Constraint |
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253 | (1) |
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8.4.4.2 Voltage Constraint |
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254 | (1) |
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8.4.4.3 Maximum Torque per Ampere (MTPA) |
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254 | (1) |
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8.4.4.4 Maximum Torque per Voltage (MPTV) |
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255 | (1) |
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8.4.4.5 Characteristic Current, Finite Drive System and Infinite Drive System |
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255 | (2) |
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8.5 Current Control Methods |
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257 | (3) |
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8.5.1 Hysteresis Current Controller |
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257 | (2) |
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8.5.2 PI Current Regulator |
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259 | (1) |
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260 | (5) |
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261 | (1) |
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8.6.1.1 Advance Angle Calculation |
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261 | (1) |
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8.6.1.2 Current-Controlled Drive |
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262 | (1) |
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262 | (2) |
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264 | (1) |
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Chapter 9 Power Electronic Converters |
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265 | (42) |
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9.1 Power Electronic Switches |
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265 | (8) |
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267 | (1) |
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267 | (1) |
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267 | (1) |
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268 | (1) |
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268 | (1) |
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9.1.6 Bi-directional Switch |
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269 | (1) |
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9.1.7 Electrical Properties |
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269 | (3) |
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9.1.8 Si, SiC and GaN Power Devices |
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272 | (1) |
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273 | (11) |
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9.2.1 Non-isolated DC/DC Converters |
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274 | (1) |
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275 | (1) |
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276 | (1) |
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9.2.1.3 Buck-Boost Converter |
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276 | (2) |
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9.2.1.4 Fourth-Order DC/DC converters |
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278 | (1) |
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9.2.1.5 Cascading of Converters |
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278 | (1) |
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9.2.1.6 Synchronous Rectification |
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279 | (1) |
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9.2.2 Isolated DC/DC Converters |
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280 | (4) |
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9.3 EV Powertrain Converters |
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284 | (15) |
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9.3.1 Powertrain Boost Converter |
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285 | (3) |
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288 | (1) |
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9.3.2.1 Power Device Selection |
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289 | (1) |
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9.3.2.2 Busbar and Packaging |
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290 | (1) |
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291 | (1) |
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9.3.2.4 Gate Drive Design |
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292 | (1) |
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9.3.2.5 Controller and Sensors |
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293 | (1) |
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294 | (3) |
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9.3.3 High- to Low-Voltage DC/DC Converter |
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297 | (1) |
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9.3.4 On-Board Battery Charger |
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297 | (2) |
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9.4 Cell-Balancing Converters |
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299 | (8) |
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9.4.1 Passive Balancing Methods |
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299 | (2) |
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9.4.2 Active Balancing Methods |
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301 | (1) |
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9.4.2.1 Individual DC/DC Converter |
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302 | (1) |
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9.4.2.2 Centralized DC/DC Converter |
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303 | (1) |
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9.4.2.3 Current Diverter DC/DC Converter |
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304 | (1) |
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305 | (2) |
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Chapter 10 Electric Motor Drives |
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307 | (36) |
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10.1 Electric Drive Components |
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307 | (1) |
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308 | (12) |
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10.2.1 Two-Quadrant Chopper |
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308 | (2) |
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310 | (2) |
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10.2.2.1 Steady-State Analysis of Quadrant 1 |
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312 | (1) |
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10.2.2.2 Ripple Reduction in ia |
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313 | (1) |
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10.2.2.3 Acceleration (Continuous Conduction Mode, CCM) |
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314 | (1) |
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10.2.2.4 Acceleration (Discontinuous Conduction Mode, DCM) |
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315 | (1) |
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10.2.2.5 Acceleration (Uncontrollable Mode, UNCM) |
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316 | (1) |
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10.2.2.6 Braking Operation (CCM in Steady State) |
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316 | (3) |
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10.2.2.7 Regenerative Power |
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319 | (1) |
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10.3 Operating Point Analysis |
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320 | (3) |
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323 | (14) |
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10.4.1 Six-Step Operation |
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324 | (3) |
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10.4.1.1 Harmonic Analysis |
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327 | (1) |
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10.4.2 Pulse Width Modulation |
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328 | (1) |
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328 | (2) |
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10.4.2.2 Harmonics in Sinusoidal PWM |
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330 | (1) |
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10.4.2.3 Space Vector (SV) PWM |
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330 | (3) |
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10.4.2.4 Generation of SV PWM Switching Signals |
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333 | (4) |
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337 | (6) |
|
|
338 | (4) |
|
|
342 | (1) |
|
Chapter 11 Vehicle Controllers and Communication |
|
|
343 | (24) |
|
|
343 | (5) |
|
11.1.1 Microcontroller Types |
|
|
344 | (1) |
|
11.1.2 Microcontroller Components |
|
|
345 | (1) |
|
11.1.2.1 Central Processing Unit |
|
|
345 | (1) |
|
11.1.2.2 Memory and Registers |
|
|
346 | (1) |
|
11.1.2.3 Timers and Counters |
|
|
346 | (1) |
|
|
347 | (1) |
|
11.1.3 Functional Safety Standard ISO 26262 |
|
|
347 | (1) |
|
11.2 Controller Software Development |
|
|
348 | (5) |
|
|
348 | (1) |
|
11.2.2 Software Development Tools |
|
|
349 | (1) |
|
11.2.3 Application Controller Implementation |
|
|
350 | (1) |
|
11.2.3.1 Motor Controller |
|
|
350 | (3) |
|
11.3 Vehicle Communications |
|
|
353 | (3) |
|
11.3.1 OSI Seven-Layer Model |
|
|
353 | (2) |
|
11.3.2 In-Vehicle Communications |
|
|
355 | (1) |
|
11.4 Controller Area Network |
|
|
356 | (11) |
|
11.4.1 CAN Transfer Protocol |
|
|
357 | (1) |
|
11.4.2 CAN Transfer Layer |
|
|
358 | (1) |
|
|
358 | (1) |
|
11.4.2.2 CAN Message Frames |
|
|
359 | (2) |
|
11.4.2.3 Message Arbitration |
|
|
361 | (1) |
|
11.4.2.4 Error Detection and Error Signaling |
|
|
361 | (1) |
|
11.4.3 CAN Physical Layer |
|
|
362 | (1) |
|
|
363 | (3) |
|
|
366 | (1) |
|
Chapter 12 Electric Vehicles and the Power Grid |
|
|
367 | (22) |
|
12.1 Vehicle Grid Interface |
|
|
367 | (2) |
|
12.1.1 G2V, V2G, V2V and V2H Frameworks |
|
|
368 | (1) |
|
12.2 Electric Vehicle Charging |
|
|
369 | (10) |
|
|
370 | (1) |
|
12.2.1.1 480 V Fast Charger |
|
|
370 | (1) |
|
|
371 | (5) |
|
12.2.2 Electric Vehicle Charging Station |
|
|
376 | (2) |
|
12.2.3 Grid Impacts of Fast Chargers |
|
|
378 | (1) |
|
12.3 Electric Vehicles in Microgrids |
|
|
379 | (10) |
|
12.3.1 Microgrids and Controls |
|
|
379 | (1) |
|
12.3.1.1 Primary- and Secondary-Level Controls |
|
|
379 | (1) |
|
12.3.1.2 Droop-Based Controls |
|
|
380 | (2) |
|
12.3.1.3 Oscillator-Based Controls |
|
|
382 | (1) |
|
12.3.1.4 Tertiary Control |
|
|
382 | (1) |
|
12.3.2 V2H and H2V Power Converter |
|
|
383 | (1) |
|
12.3.3 Solar Generation Integration with Electric Vehicles |
|
|
384 | (1) |
|
12.3.3.1 Coordinated Control of Solar PV Generation, Storage and PEV |
|
|
385 | (2) |
|
|
387 | (2) |
|
Chapter 13 Internal Combustion Engines |
|
|
389 | (24) |
|
|
389 | (7) |
|
13.1.1 Reciprocating Engines |
|
|
390 | (2) |
|
13.1.2 Practical and Air-Standard Cycles |
|
|
392 | (1) |
|
13.1.2.1 Air-Standard Otto Cycle |
|
|
392 | (2) |
|
13.1.2.2 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle |
|
|
394 | (1) |
|
13.1.3 Gas Turbine Engines |
|
|
395 | (1) |
|
|
396 | (2) |
|
13.3 Vehicle Fuel Economy |
|
|
398 | (3) |
|
13.3.1 Fuel Economy in Hybrids |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
13.4 Emission Control System |
|
|
401 | (12) |
|
13.4.1 Generation of Pollutants |
|
|
401 | (2) |
|
13.4.2 Effect of Air-fuel Ratio on Emissions |
|
|
403 | (1) |
|
|
404 | (3) |
|
13.4.4 Emission Control Components |
|
|
407 | (1) |
|
13.4.4.1 Exhaust Gas Recirculation |
|
|
407 | (1) |
|
13.4.4.2 Catalytic Converter |
|
|
407 | (1) |
|
13.4.5 Treatment of Diesel Exhaust Emissions |
|
|
408 | (1) |
|
13.4.5.1 Diesel Oxidation Catalysts |
|
|
408 | (1) |
|
13.4.5.2 Diesel Particulate Filters |
|
|
409 | (1) |
|
13.4.5.3 Methods of NO, Reduction |
|
|
409 | (2) |
|
|
411 | (1) |
|
|
411 | (2) |
|
Chapter 14 Power Transmission, Brakes and Cooling Systems |
|
|
413 | (32) |
|
14.1 Power Transmission Components |
|
|
413 | (2) |
|
14.1.1 Electric Vehicle Powertrain |
|
|
414 | (1) |
|
|
415 | (8) |
|
|
416 | (3) |
|
14.2.2 Torque-Speed Characteristics |
|
|
419 | (2) |
|
14.2.3 Planetary Gear Set |
|
|
421 | (2) |
|
|
423 | (1) |
|
14.4 Automobile Differential |
|
|
423 | (1) |
|
|
424 | (5) |
|
14.5.1 Manual Transmission |
|
|
425 | (1) |
|
14.5.2 Automatic Transmission |
|
|
426 | (1) |
|
14.5.2.1 Torque Converter |
|
|
426 | (1) |
|
14.5.2.2 Automatic Transmission in Hybrids |
|
|
427 | (1) |
|
14.5.3 Continuously Variable Transmission |
|
|
427 | (2) |
|
14.5.4 eCVT/HEV Transmission |
|
|
429 | (1) |
|
|
429 | (7) |
|
14.6.1 Conventional Brake System |
|
|
429 | (4) |
|
14.6.2 Electromechanical Brake System |
|
|
433 | (3) |
|
|
436 | (9) |
|
14.7.1 Climate Control System |
|
|
436 | (1) |
|
14.7.1.1 Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle |
|
|
437 | (2) |
|
14.7.1.2 Vehicle Air-Conditioning System |
|
|
439 | (1) |
|
14.7.2 Powertrain Component Cooling System |
|
|
440 | (3) |
|
|
443 | (1) |
|
|
443 | (2) |
|
Chapter 15 Hybrid Vehicle Control Strategy |
|
|
445 | (22) |
|
15.1 Vehicle Supervisory Controller |
|
|
445 | (1) |
|
15.2 Mode Selection Strategy |
|
|
446 | (8) |
|
15.2.1 Mechanical Power-Split Hybrid Modes |
|
|
448 | (1) |
|
15.2.1.1 Electric Only (Low Speeds, Reverse, Battery Charging) |
|
|
449 | (1) |
|
15.2.1.2 Engine Starting (Low Speeds) |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
15.2.1.3 Parallel Mode (Heavy Acceleration) |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
15.2.1.4 Power-Split Mode (Cruise, Light Acceleration) |
|
|
451 | (1) |
|
15.2.1.5 Engine Brake Mode (Driver Selectable Mode) |
|
|
451 | (1) |
|
15.2.1.6 Regeneration Mode (Vehicle Braking) |
|
|
452 | (1) |
|
15.2.2 Series-Parallel 2 × 2 Hybrid Modes |
|
|
452 | (1) |
|
15.2.2.1 Electric Only (Low Speeds, Reverse, Battery Charging) |
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
15.2.2.2 Series Mode (Lower Speeds) |
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
15.2.2.3 Power-Split Mode (Cruise, Light Acceleration) |
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
15.2.2.4 Parallel Mode (Heavy Acceleration) |
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
15.3 Modal Control Strategies |
|
|
454 | (13) |
|
|
454 | (1) |
|
|
455 | (2) |
|
15.3.3 Series-Parallel Control |
|
|
457 | (1) |
|
15.3.3.1 Mechanical Power-Split IC Engine Control |
|
|
458 | (1) |
|
15.3.3.2 Series-Parallel 2 × 2 Control |
|
|
459 | (1) |
|
15.3.4 Energy Storage System Control |
|
|
460 | (2) |
|
15.3.5 Regeneration Control |
|
|
462 | (2) |
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
|
465 | (2) |
Index |
|
467 | |