E-grāmata: The Routledge Companion to Human Resource Development

Part I: Origins of the Field 1.History, Status and Future of HRD Field
(Monica Lee) 2.Andragogy (Joseph Kessels) 3.Adult Learning (Knud Illeris)
4.Technical and Vocational Learning (Stephen Billett)
5. Continuing
Professional Education, Development and Learning (Barbara J. Daley and Ronald
M. Cervero) Part II: Adjacent and Related Fields . Organization Development
in the Context of HRD: From Diagnostic to Dialogic Perspectives (Toby Egan)
7. Career Development in the Context of HRD: Challenges and Considerations
(Kimberly S. McDonald and Linda M. Hite)
8. Workers and Union HRD: Seeking
Employee Voice and Empowerment (Bruce Spencer and Jennifer Kelly)
9. Human
Resource Management and HRD: Connecting the Dots, or Ships Passing in the
Night? (Jon M. Werner)
10. Performance Improvement: Goals and Means for HRD
(Seung Won Yoon, Doo Hun Lim and Pedro A. Willging) Part III: Theoretical
Approaches
11. Conceptualizing Critical HRD (CHRD): Tensions, Dilemmas and
Possibilities (Tara Fenwick)
12. Social Capital Theory and HRD: Debates,
Perspectives and Opportunities (Claire Gubbins and Russell Korte)
13. The
Learning-Network Theory: Actors Organize Dynamic HRD Networks (Rob Poell and
Ferd J. Van Der Krogt)
14. Systems Theory: Relevance to HRD Theory, Research
and Practice (Richard J. Torraco)
15. Human Capital Theory and Screening
Theory: Relevance to HRD Research and Practice (Judy Y. Sun and Greg G. Wang)
Part IV: Policy Perspectives
16. National Human Resource Development (NHRD)
(Gary N. McLean and AAhad M. Osman-Gani)
17. Workforce Development (Joshua D.
Hawley)
18. Lifelong Learning as a Life-Large and Life-Deep Reality (Paul
Bélanger) 19.Strategic HRD (Jim Stewart)
20. Talent Management and Leadership
Development (Paul Iles) Part V: Interventions 21.Change Management (Ann Kohut
and Gene L. Roth) 22.Informal Learning in Learning Organizations (Victoria J.
Marsick and Karen E. Watkins)
23. Communities of Practice and Value Creation
in Networks (Maarten de Laat, Bieke Schreurs and Femke Nijland)
24. Coaching
and Mentoring (Andrea D. Ellinger)
25. Structured On-the-Job Training (Ronald
L. Jacobs) Part VI: Core Issues and Concerns
26. Work and its Personal,
Social and Cross-Cultural Meanings (K. Peter Kuchinke)
27. Organizational
Sustainability, Corporate Social Responsibility and Business Ethics
(Alexandre Ardichvili)
28. Diversity and Inclusion Initiatives in
Organizations (Martin B. Kormanik and Peter Chikwendu Nwaoma)
29. Working
Conditions of Child Labour and Migrant Workers (Maimunah Ismail and Nor
Wahiza Abdul Wahat)
30. Transfer of Learning (Holly M. Hutchins and Sarah
Leberman) Part VII: HRD as a Profession
31. Certification of HRD
Professionals (Saul Carliner and Bob Hamlin) 3 2.University Programmes in HRD
(Paul Roberts, John Walton and Doo Hun Lim)
33. HRD and the Global Financial
Crisis: Regaining Legitimacy and Credibility through People Not Economics
(Thomas N. Garavan and Clķodhna A. MacKenzie) Part VIII: HRD around the World
34. National and Organizational Imperatives for HRD in Ghana (Meera Alagaraja
and Nana Arthur-Mensah)
35. Vocational Education and Training Policy Issues
in South Africa (Andre Kraak)
36. Development of Human Resources in Central
and South America (Rod P. Githens, Carlos Albornoz, Librado Enrique Gonzalez,
Tonette S. Rocco and Christine Wiggins-Romesburg)
37. HRD in North America
(ravor C. Brown, José Ernesto Rangel Delgado and Bronwyn Cass)
38. Emerging
Trends, Challenges and Opportunities for HRD in India (Rajashi Ghosh and Arup
Barman)
39. HRD in China (Jian Huang, Zhongming Ouyang and Jessica Li)
40.
HRD in the Middle East (Mesut Akdere and Khalil Dirani)
41. HRD in Japan and
Taiwan (Robert J. Schalkoff and Min-Hsun Christine Kuo)
42. HRD in Australia
and New Zealand (Ken Bartlett and Roger Harris)
43. HRD in Hungary and Poland
(Maria Cseh, Andrzej Rozanski, Zsolt Nemeskéri and Béla Krisztiį)
44. HRD in
the European Union (Alexandra Dehmel and Jasper B. van Loo) Part IX: Emerging
Topics and Future Trends
45. Line Managers and HRD (David McGuire and Heather
Kissack)
46. Employee Engagement and HRD: Intersections of Theory and
Practice (Brad Shuck and Sally Sambrook)
47. New Ways of Working and
Employability: Towards an Agenda for HRD (Beatrice Van Der Heijden, Pascale
Peters and Clare Kelliher)
48. An International Perspective of the Work-Life
System within HRD (Sunny L. Munn and Hae-Young Lee)
49. Emotions and
Self-Development (Paul Nesbit)
50. Workplace Incivility as an International
Issue: The Role of HRD (Thomas G. Reio, Jr.)
51. Cross-Cultural Training and
Its Implications for HRD (Kyoung-Ah Nam, Yonjoo Cho and Mimi Lee)
52.
Intercultural Competence and HRD (Katherine Rosenbusch)
53. Virtual HRD
(VHRD) (Simone C. O. Conceiēćo and Kristopher J. Thomas) Epilogue: A Synopsis
of the Present, Future and Intrigue of HRD (Gene L. Roth, Tonette S. Rocco
and Rob F. Poell)

Section I: Origins of the FieldChapter
1. The History, Status and Future of
HRD (Monica Lee)This chapter provides a brief overview of the history, status
and future of HRD. It suggests that the current multi-focus nature of HRD is
a result of the disparate roots from which it has sprung. The chapter
explores such diversity of interpretation and practice as reinforced by
opposing views on the nature of HRD (being or becoming); the focus of HRD
(performance or learning), and; the scope of HRD (global or local). The
future of HRD is then posited in the light of global changes and shifting
boundaries, and the implications for HRD practice and the profession are
explored, finishing with the question what future do we want to create?.

Chapter
2. Andragogy (Joseph Kessels)The main focus of andragogy has been:
helping adults learn and develop, creating favorable conditions for learning
and development in a work environment as well as in their private lives. The
development of andragogy has close relationships with adult education and HRD
and encountered major debates on its assumptions and scientific foundations.
The critical approach of andragogy still offers a meaningful contribution to
HRD in an emerging knowledge society.

Chapter
3. Adult Learning (Knud Illeris)It is significant that adult
learning, as seen in contrast to children's learning, is highly selective,
and must be so, because there is always much more learning possibilities than
learning capacity. In general adults learn what they want to learn and what
is meaningful for them to learn, and they are not inclined to learn something
that they are not interested in, or in which they cannot see the meaning or
importance. In late modernity this situation has been intensified, because
more of the needed learning is of a transformative kind and include changes
in the individual identity.

Chapter
4. Technical and Vocational Learning (Stephen Billett)This chapter
discusses how HRD practitioners might come to understand more about the
workplace-based education experiences offered through vocational education
programs, participate in them, build workplace capacities to support tertiary
education students learning, and built and sustain effective relations with
tertiary educational institutions. This includes how those practitioners
might advance their workplaces HRD goals for inducting staff and supporting
ongoing development across their employment in those workplaces. In all it
advances propositions about the ways HRD practitioners might come to consider
these experiences as opportunities for selecting future employees, build
capacities in the workplace and utilize the opportunities for engagement with
vocational institutions that such experiences provides, whilst being aware of
the constraints placed upon these practitioners.

Chapter
5. Continuing Professional Education, Development and Learning
(Barbara J. Daley and Ronald M. Cervero)Continuing professional education
(CPE) and systems of continuing professional development (CPD) are being
challenged to change dramatically. Over the last two decades, CPE has moved
from a focus on episodic delivery to a planned/sustained delivery, from a
focus on the adult learner to a focus on client outcomes, and from education
off-site to education on the job. This chapter provides a rationale for a
broader conception of CPE, analyzes CPD within social and global contexts,
and discusses the movement towards developing systems of lifelong
professional development and learning.

Section II: Adjacent and Related FieldsChapter
6. Organization Development in
the Context of HRD: From Diagnostic to Dialogic Perspectives (Toby Egan)The
intersections between organization development (OD) and human resource
development (HRD) are explored and elaborated upon. Definitions of OD, the
purpose of OD, and key OD outcomes are also describedalong with a brief
history of OD from the early 1900s thru today. In addition, values- and
process-based focus of OD interventions are articulated in the context of
applied behavioural science. Key steps in the OD process are explicated along
with the relationship between OD and action research. Newer approaches to OD,
such as Appreciative Inquiry and Appreciative Action Research are detailed
along with a discussion about the future of OD.

Chapter
7. Career Development in the Context of HRD: Challenges and
Considerations (Kimberly S. McDonald and Linda M. Hite)To better understand
the current challenges and considerations influencing career development
(CD), this chapter begins with a brief overview of the history of CD. Three
challenges facing CD in the 21st century are described: the volatile economic
environment; the increasingly diverse workforce; and the contested terrain,
or the tension between individuals career needs and the goals of
organizations.. The chapter concludes with recommendations that address how
HRD practice and research might respond to these challenges.

Chapter
8. Workers and Union HRD: Seeking Employee Voice and Empowerment
(Bruce Spencer and Jennifer Kelly)It could be argued that referring to
employees as human resources another input in the production process
dehumanizes workers and that HRD is essentially about how to improve that
input in order to extract additional value from that "resource." This
contribution to the handbook looks at HRD from an employee perspective it
opens with a brief outline "understanding unions" followed by a discussion of
workers and unions learning at work, before moving on to a longer
exposition of what constitutes labour education. This is followed by an
examination of employee development schemes (EDS) and a brief review of
employee empowerment in HRD/Learning and EDS.

Chapter
9. Human Resource Management and HRD: Connecting the Dots, or Ships
Passing in the Night? (Jon M. Werner)This chapter describes the fields of
human resource management (HRM) and human resource development (HRD),
including brief histories of both areas. Distinctions between the fields are
made, and overlap between them is presented. A call is made for a holistic,
multidisciplinary approach to address human growth and development in the
workplace. A framework from Mankin (2001) is used to depict overlap between
organizational strategy and structure, organizational culture, HRM, and HRD.
As these topics converge in greater alignment, the need for and centrality of
strong HRD principles and practices should increase.

Chapter
10. Performance Improvement: Goals and Means for HRD (Seung Won Yoon,
Doo Hun Lim and Pedro A. Willging)Performance improvement (PI) is commonly
understood as a concept (improving individual, group, or organizational
performance), a practical framework (models or processes with steps to
follow), and scholarly discipline (the International Society for Performance
Improvement (ISPI) is the primary association among PI scholars). We believe
that PI offers useful conceptual frameworks and practical tools for Human
Resource Development. In this chapter, we clarify relevant terms and review
scholarly efforts to identify the core of PI research and then introduce
widely practiced PI analysis/process frameworks, adding our insights. We also
discuss how trends in technologies will further impact workplace learning and
performance.

Section III: Theoretical Approaches

Chapter11. Conceptualizing Critical Human Resource Development (CHRD):
Tensions, Dilemmas and Possibilities (Tara Fenwick)This chapter provides an
introduction and overview to critical modes of enquiry and practice in human
resource development. Two main principles underpin this diverse scholarship.
First, CHRD fundamentally promotes critical analysis of power relations,
commonly focused on inequities as well as the issues of gender, diversity and
their intersections. Second, CHRD is oriented towards action - towards
organizations that are more just, equitable, life-giving and sustainable
workplaces. Tensions and dilemmas about what precisely is critical and how
to engage critical learning are discussed, and approaches to promoting CHRD
are presented.

Chapter12. Social Capital Theory and Human Resource Development: Debates,
Perspectives and Opportunities (Claire Gubbins and Russell
Korte)Interdependencies between people and their social groups make social
capital a valuable heuristic in HRD. Social capital is defined as the
resources afforded by social relations and the structure of those
relationships. Social relations are key to understanding individual,
collective and societal behaviour. For HRD, a social capital perspective
shifts the focus from a narrow perspective on individuals (human capital) to
a broader systems view of relations between individuals and collectives
(social capital). This chapter describes theories of social capital and
social networks. It discusses the possibilities this perspective provides HRD
research and practice, with emphasis on learning and performance.

Chapter
13. The Learning-Network Theory: Actors Organize Dynamic HRD Networks
(Rob F. Poell and Ferd J. Van Der Krogt)There is increasing interest in the
complicated issue of how human resource development (HRD) should be
organized. The difficulty is due in part to a limited conceptualization of
what it means to organize HRD, which has dominated the field and focuses on
designing learning structures (e.g. HRD-policy plans). The Learning-Network
Theory (LNT), which this chapter summarizes, offers a broader perspective on
organizing HRD better capable of analyzing and improving HRD processes. The
LNT focuses on the strategies that employees (interacting with other actors)
use to organize HRD processes in the context of dynamic networks.

Chapter14. Systems Theory: Relevance to HRD Theory, Research and Practice
(Richard J. Torraco)This chapter examines systems theory and its relevance to
human resource development (HRD) theory, research, and practice. Since
systems theory provides a common conception of organizations or any system,
it can serve as a conceptual framework or organizer through which the field
of HRD can ensure a holistic understanding of its work. The chapter is
presented in four parts: research applications of systems theory, systems
theory in theoretical research, systems theory as meta-theory, and systems
theory and professional practice. Implications for further research and
practice related to systems theory and HRD are discussed.

Chapter
15. Human Capital Theory and Screening Theory: Relevance to HRD
Research and Practice (Judy Y. Sun and Greg G. Wang)Human capital theory
(HCT), as one of the well-accepted foundational theories of human resources
development, has been employed to explain and predict human resource
development phenomena ad practices at individual, organizational/community
and national level. Screening theory (TST), as a complementary theory to HCT,
has addressed challenges in HCT theory and serves as a powerful alternative
in explaining the effect of education in talent selection. This chapter is
aimed to review the origins and evolution of, and current states of research
on both theories and presents important implications for HRD theory building,
research, and practice.

Section IV: Policy Perspectives

Chapter16. National Human Resource Development (NHRD) (Gary N. McLean and
AAhad M. Osman-Gani)For as long as we have had countries, we have had a focus
on development: economic, cultural, security, education, and so on. This
interest led economists to focus on what it takes to develop countries for
maximum return. Beginning in the mid-a960s, this focus has been labeled as
national human resource development. There is no common approach for doing
this. We explore four countries and their approaches to NHRD: India, Peoples
Republic of China, Singapore, and the United States. We also explore its
evolution, its benefits and challenges, its implementation, and future
research.

Chapter
17. Workforce Development (Joshua D. Hawley)Workforce development is
an area of practice that focuses on helping individuals enter and reenter the
workforce, and can be used simultaneously to describe efforts to improve
performance in organizations. The term has been used increasingly by human
resource development scholars, often serving as an umbrella term. Recently,
workforce development practice has focused on the needs of individuals
displaced from work or unemployed, and scholarship in the area is
concentrated in medical or specialty journals as the term has grown rapidly
as a descriptor for human resource programs.

Chapter
18. Lifelong Learning as a Life-Large and Life-Deep Reality (Paul
Bélanger)In the globalized economy, firms have to continuously improve
quality control and productivity, and to do so in a diffused way within their
organization. In such context, the meaning and conditions of work are
changing. People are called upon to develop their capacity of initiative.
This subjective relationship to productive activity leads individuals to seek
not only "exchange" but also "use value" in their work. But they cannot
enhance their autonomy and performance unless there is recognition of their
individual and collective demand for a type of learning that has personal
meaning and that builds on both their past experience and personally
integrated new knowledge. Hence, to be significant for individuals and
productive for organizations work-related lifelong learning needs to become
life-large and life-deep.

Chapter
19. Strategic Human Resource Development (Jim Stewart)Strategic HRD
is often considered a development and form of HRD which contributes to
achievement of organization goals. This is commonly conceived as HRD
strategies supporting implementation of organization strategies designed and
intended to achieve strategic goals. This chapter challenges this view by
examining debates and controversies surrounding the meaning and use of the
concepts strategic, strategy, strategic HRD and HRD strategies. The
examination suggests not only a range of meanings but also confusions in the
use of the concepts. While no resolution is provided, the chapter argues
potential benefits can arise from strategic HRD, irrespective of ascribed
meaning.

Chapter
20. Talent Management and Leadership Development (Paul Iles)Talent
management (TM) and leadership development (LD) are two inter-related,
emerging topics in HRD. This chapter discusses the similarities and
differences between the two in a global context in relation to recent
research. Before ending with implications for future research, is addresses
these similarities and differences in relation to eleven key questions: 1)
How are talent and leadership defined? 2) Inclusive or exclusive approach? 3)
Performance or potential? 4) Born or made? 5) Person, position or process? 6)
Individual or collective? 7) Are TM and LD fashions? 8) Are LD and TM
ethical? 9) Are global TM/LD different from domestic TM/LD? 10) How can we
develop talent and leadership? and 11) Where next?

Section V: Interventions

Chapter
21. Change Management (Ann Kohut and Gene L. Roth)The topic of change
is so complex that the first order of business is to determine a structure
that makes sense for the audience, in this case HRD scholars and
practitioners. Toward that end, this chapter begins with an overview of the
literature that highlights select models and theories on change management.
We then examine prominent issues in the change management literature as well
as tensions of change management that are relevant to HRD research and
practice. The chapter concludes with implications for HRD practitioners and
suggestions for future research.

Chapter
22. Informal Learning in Learning Organizations (Victoria J. Marsick
and Karen E. Watkins)HRD scholars and practitioners acknowledge that informal
learning is central to organization learning. This chapter defines informal
learning from multiple perspectives: Dewian, learning network, and
socio-cultural. The Marsick-Watkins model of informal learning is described
as well as adaptations to the model driven by research. Professional practice
and work system studies enrich our understanding of the nature of informal
learning. The chapter identifies ways informal learning is being supported
and implemented in organizations. The chapter concludes with implications for
human resource and organization developers who must weave learning
effectively into a learning architecture at individual, workplace, and
organizational levels.

Chapter
23. Communities of Practice and Value Creation in Networks (Maarten
de Laat, Bieke Schreurs and Femke Nijland)The communities of practice theory
on learning through participation, apprenticeship and shared practices, has
been influential in the appreciation of informal professional development in
the past two decades. However, in view of recent organizational developments
such as new ways of working and social media, the organizational landscape
transforms into open practices where professionals work, learn and innovate
with their peers beyond organizational boundaries. These emerging open
practices require critical reflections about the meaning of CoPs, shifting
our ideas to a more dynamic perspective coined as networks of practice. In
light of these developments this chapter reflects the challenges that
communities face and how they balance dealing with increased openness,
networking and demonstrate the value they create.

Chapter
24. Coaching and Mentoring (Andrea D. Ellinger)Coaching and mentoring
are powerful developmental interventions that have experienced considerable
growth in the workplace and they represent important research and practice
domains for the field of human resource development. Therefore, this chapter
defines and provides an overview of these concepts. It highlights some of the
relevant empirical research on coaching, managerial coaching, and mentoring.
It also identifies trends, issues, and global perspectives related to these
concepts and concludes with recommendations regarding pathways for further
researching these interventions.

Chapter
25. Structured On-the-Job Training (Ronald L. Jacobs)This chapter
reviews structured on-the-job training (S-OJT), a training approach used in
many organizations. Research shows that much learning occurs on the job, but
it tends to be unplanned, or unstructured. S-OJT was first introduced in the
1980s and is defined as the planned process of having an experienced employee
train a novice employee on specific units of work in the actual work setting
or a setting that closely resembles the work setting. The definition affirms
the desirability of having individuals learn in the same location in which
they will be expected to perform their work later on.

Section VI: Core Issues and Concerns

Chapter
26. Work and its Personal, Social and Cross-Cultural Meanings (K.
Peter Kuchinke)Human Resource Development is centrally focused on work: on
learning, training, development for work, at work, through work, and about
work. Work is the constant that links together the various dimensions and
application areas for HRD, ranging from individual to global. This chapter
provides workforce and human resource scholars and practitioners with three
perspectives on work: Its individual meaning driven by personal expectations
and needs, its role as a social institution undergoing massive changes, and
the diversity of societal norms about work based on cross-cultural
differences.

Chapter
27. Organizational Sustainability, Corporate Social Responsibility
and Business Ethics (Alexandre Ardichvili)The goal of this chapter is to
illuminate the role of HRD in enabling Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR),
Organizational sustainability (OS), and ethics in business organizations.
Specifically, this chapter discusses: The importance of CSR, sustainability
and business ethics in todays business organizations; definitions of key
terms; the role of HRD in imbedding OS, CSR, and ethics in organizational
practices and cultures; learning and development approaches, used to foster
CSR, OS, and ethics in organizations; and critical views of HRDs role and
practices.

Chapter
28. Diversity and Inclusion Initiatives in Organizations (Martin B.
Kormanik and Peter Chikwendu Nwaoma)This chapter situates the concept of
diversity and inclusion in social and organizational contexts. It highlights
the literature on the historical foundations of diversity management, along
with best practices for initiatives for maximizing the advantages diversity
brings to organizations. Modern organizations are more conscious in managing
workforce diversity to enhance productivity. The narrative includes the
nature and meaning of diversity as a social construct, its effects in the
organizational setting, nascent efforts to manage workforce diversity in the
workplace, expansion to the global context, initiatives in contemporary
organizations, human resource practitioner roles in these initiatives, and
considerations for practitioners professional development.

Chapter
29. Working Conditions of Child Labour and Migrant Workers (Maimunah
Ismail and Nor Wahiza Abdul Wahat)The occurrence of child labour and migrant
workers in many countries is almost unstoppable. This chapter specifically
defines the meaning of working conditions, and explores the global
perspectives of working conditions across of child labour and migrant workers
in selected countries. The analysis found that child labour issues are almost
absent from most developed countries but they increase in countries with low
Human Development Index (HDI). The opposite is observed for migrant workers.
An important HRD implication is that MNCs should comply with the principles
of responsible business in providing appropriate working conditions for
workers within the entire supply chain.

Chapter
30. Transfer of Learning (Holly M. Hutchins and Sarah
Leberman)Transfer of learning has received notable attention by scholars and
practitioners through meta-analyses, integrative reviews, and assessment
methods. In this chapter, we provide a review of the transfer literature,
with specific attention to evidence-supported transfer factors and
interventions representative of international scholarly and practitioner
perspectives. To demonstrate practical application of evidence-based
approaches, we highlight the application of transfer approaches in short
vignettes from a US and UK organization recognized for their strategic
support of employees of learning transfer. In our final section, we
synthesize major findings, trends and offer implications for continuing
research and practices in transfer of learning.

Section VII: HRD as a Profession

Chapter
31. Certification of HRD Professionals (Saul Carliner and Bob
Hamlin)This chapter explores certification as a qualification for HRD-related
jobs. Certification is a transferrable credential that validates professional
competence by a third party. It is typically based on externally defined
bodies of knowledge or competency models; require minimum levels of
experience and education; involve a test, skill demonstration, or portfolio
review; and require certified professionals to adhere to a code of ethics and
maintain their skills. Several types of HRD-related certifications exist in
training, coaching, organizational development and HR (including HRM).
Certifications focus on "process skills," not industries or subject areas.
Competition among the many certifications might prevent any from gaining the
level of recognition needed to achieve wide credibility. Certifications also
have implications for academic programs.

Chapter
32. University Programmes in Human Resource Development (Paul
Roberts, John Walton and Doo Hun Lim)In this chapter, we explore the history
and foundation of university programmes in HRD, not only to provide insight
into our past, but also to lend guidance into where they are headed. HRD
programmes have taken on many different appearances largely stemming from the
focus or points of origin, but also the passions and expertise of the faculty
within the various universities. Programmes are examined from the perspective
of the United States, Europe, and Asia in general with specific focus on
Korea.

Chapter
33. Human Resource Development and the Global Financial Crisis:
Regaining Legitimacy and Credibility through People Not Economics (Thomas N.
Garavan and Clķodhna A. MacKenzie)In this chapter, we discuss the challenges
for HRD post the global financial crisis. We utilize a number of theoretical
perspectives to explain how what drove organizational practices including HRD
during the economic boom and analyze the challenges that HRD now faces to
regain its legitimacy. We discuss where HRD currently stands as a profession
and field of research and discuss the research and practice agenda that will
help it move forward.

Section VIII: HRD around the World

Chapter
34. National and Organizational Imperatives for Human Resource
Development in Ghana (Meera Alagaraja and Nana Arthur-Mensah)Over the years,
Ghanas focus on workforce training and development, macro-economic policies
and education shaped national HRD (NHRD) imperatives. These imperatives
addressed the challenges of globalization and placed economic development at
the centre of NHRD efforts. NHRD imperatives also set the context for HRD and
enhanced the value of developing human resources. At the organizational
level, HRD imperatives call for inclusion, access to professional development
opportunities, and fostering positive work environments for all employees.
The chapter examines national and organizational imperatives for HRD and
emphasizes the need for integrating traditional Ghanaian socio-cultural
values with western management practices and leadership styles.

Chapter
35. Vocational Education and Training Policy

Rob F. Poell is Professor of Human Resource Development at Tilburg University, The Netherlands. Rob has published widely in leading HRD, management and organization journals. He served as Editor-in-Chief for Human Resource Development International from 2010-2012 and was a twice-elected member on the Board of Directors of the Academy of Human Resource Development

Tonette S. Rocco is Full Professor and Graduate Program Director of Adult Education and Human Resource Development at Florida International University, USA. She is a former board member of the HR Certification Institute and the American Society for Training and Development, and is an award-winning author with over 200 publications

Gene L. Roth is Emeritus Distinguished Teaching Professor of Adult and Higher Education at Northern Illinois University, USA. His research interests include learning to learn, international adult education, workplace learning, and adult learning. He is a past president of the Academy of Human Resource Development