Foreword |
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xiii | |
Preface |
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xv | |
Introduction |
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xvii | |
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The chemical diversity of wine |
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xvii | |
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xvii | |
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Chemical reactions in wine |
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xx | |
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Chemistry as a historical record |
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xxi | |
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The chemical senses and wine flavor |
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xxi | |
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xxiv | |
Part A Wine Components and Their Reactions |
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1 | (158) |
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3 | (8) |
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3 | (1) |
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1.2 Chemical and physical properties of water |
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3 | (1) |
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1.3 Properties of ethanol and ethanol-water mixtures |
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4 | (2) |
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1.4 Typical ethanol concentrations in wines |
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6 | (1) |
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1.5 Sensory effects of ethanol |
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7 | (2) |
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9 | (2) |
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11 | (8) |
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11 | (1) |
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2.2 Nomenclature, representation, and occurrence of sugars |
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11 | (3) |
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2.3 Physical, chemical, and sensory properties of sugars |
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14 | (3) |
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17 | (1) |
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18 | (1) |
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19 | (15) |
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19 | (1) |
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3.2 Organic acids in wine |
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19 | (2) |
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3.3 Organic acids, pH, and wine acidity |
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21 | (7) |
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28 | (3) |
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3.5 General roles of organic acids and pH in wine reactions |
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31 | (1) |
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3.6 Sensory effects of acids |
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31 | (1) |
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32 | (2) |
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34 | (6) |
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34 | (1) |
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4.2 Origins of metals in wine |
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35 | (1) |
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4.3 Reactions involving metals |
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35 | (2) |
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4.4 Sensory effects of metals |
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37 | (1) |
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4.5 Metals and wine authenticity |
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37 | (1) |
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38 | (2) |
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5 Amines, Amino Acids, and Proteins |
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40 | (11) |
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40 | (1) |
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40 | (1) |
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5.3 Amino acids and related major nitrogenous compounds in wines |
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41 | (3) |
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5.4 Nitrogenous compounds with health effects |
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44 | (1) |
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45 | (3) |
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48 | (3) |
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51 | (6) |
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51 | (1) |
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6.2 Properties of higher alcohols |
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51 | (1) |
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6.3 Origins and concentrations of higher alcohols |
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52 | (1) |
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6.4 Six-carbon (C6) alcohols |
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53 | (1) |
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54 | (1) |
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55 | (2) |
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57 | (11) |
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57 | (1) |
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57 | (3) |
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60 | (1) |
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7.4 Esters formed during winemaking and storage |
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60 | (5) |
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65 | (1) |
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66 | (2) |
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68 | (11) |
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68 | (1) |
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8.2 General chemical and sensory properties of isoprenoids |
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68 | (1) |
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69 | (4) |
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73 | (1) |
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74 | (2) |
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76 | (3) |
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9 Aldehydes, Ketones, and Related Compounds |
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79 | (9) |
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79 | (1) |
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80 | (1) |
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9.3 Short and medium chain aldehydes |
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80 | (4) |
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84 | (1) |
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85 | (1) |
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86 | (2) |
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10 Thiols and Related Sulfur Compounds |
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88 | (11) |
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88 | (3) |
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10.2 Varietal sulfur aroma compounds - polyfunctional thiols |
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91 | (2) |
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10.3 Fermentative sulfur aroma compounds |
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93 | (1) |
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10.4 Other sulfur-containing aroma compounds |
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94 | (1) |
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Chemical principles: nucleophiles and electrophiles |
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95 | (2) |
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97 | (2) |
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11 Introduction to Phenolics |
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99 | (6) |
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99 | (3) |
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102 | (1) |
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103 | (1) |
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104 | (1) |
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105 | (7) |
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105 | (1) |
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12.2 Structure and chemical properties |
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105 | (2) |
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12.3 Concentrations in wine and sensory effects |
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107 | (1) |
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12.4 Origins in wine and effects on volatile phenol profile |
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107 | (3) |
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110 | (2) |
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13 Non-flavonoid Phenolics |
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112 | (5) |
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112 | (1) |
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112 | (1) |
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13.3 Hydroxybenzoic acids |
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113 | (1) |
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114 | (1) |
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115 | (2) |
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14 Flavan-3-ols and Condensed Tannin |
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117 | (10) |
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117 | (1) |
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117 | (2) |
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14.3 Oligomeric proanthocyanidins and polymeric condensed tannins |
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119 | (3) |
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122 | (1) |
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Chemical principles: electrophilic aromatic substitution |
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123 | (2) |
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125 | (2) |
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127 | (4) |
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127 | (1) |
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15.2 Concentrations of flavonols |
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127 | (2) |
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15.3 Effects of growing conditions and winemaking |
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129 | (1) |
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129 | (2) |
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131 | (9) |
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131 | (1) |
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16.2 Structures and forms |
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131 | (2) |
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16.3 Non-covalent interactions: co-pigmentation |
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133 | (1) |
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134 | (1) |
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135 | (3) |
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138 | (2) |
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140 | (9) |
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17.1 Introduction and terminology |
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140 | (1) |
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17.2 Acid-base chemistry of SO2 |
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141 | (2) |
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17.3 Sulfonate adducts, "bound SO2," and antioxidant effects |
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143 | (3) |
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17.4 Typical sources and concentrations of SO2 in wine |
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146 | (1) |
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17.5 Measurement of molecular, free, and total SO2 |
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146 | (1) |
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147 | (1) |
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148 | (1) |
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18 Taints, Off-flavors, and Mycotoxins |
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149 | (10) |
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149 | (1) |
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150 | (5) |
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155 | (1) |
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156 | (3) |
Part B Chemistry of Wine Production Processes |
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159 | (224) |
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19 Outline of Wine Production |
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161 | (11) |
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161 | (1) |
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161 | (3) |
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164 | (2) |
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19.4 Tanks and fermenters |
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166 | (3) |
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169 | (1) |
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169 | (1) |
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170 | (2) |
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20 Grape Must Composition Overview |
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172 | (7) |
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172 | (1) |
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172 | (1) |
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173 | (1) |
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174 | (1) |
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175 | (1) |
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175 | (1) |
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20.7 Minerals and vitamins |
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176 | (1) |
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176 | (1) |
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176 | (1) |
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177 | (2) |
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21 Maceration and Extraction of Grape Components |
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179 | (15) |
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179 | (4) |
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21.2 Pre-fermentative treatments |
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183 | (3) |
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21.3 Maceration treatments during fermentation |
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186 | (3) |
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21.4 Post-fermentation maceration |
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189 | (1) |
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190 | (4) |
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22 The Biochemistry of Wine Fermentations |
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194 | (45) |
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195 | (10) |
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195 | (1) |
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22.1.2 Glycolysis and alcoholic fermentation |
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196 | (2) |
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22.1.3 Glyceropyruvic fermentation |
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198 | (2) |
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22.1.4 Succinic acid and other Krebs cycle intermediates |
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200 | (2) |
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22.1.5 Consequences of glycolysis on wine chemistry |
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202 | (2) |
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204 | (1) |
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22.2 Fatty Acid Metabolism |
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205 | (9) |
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205 | (1) |
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22.2.2 Long-chain fatty acid metabolism |
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205 | (4) |
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22.2.3 Mid-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) and ethyl esters |
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209 | (2) |
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22.2.4 Increasing MCFA and their ethyl esters in winemaking |
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211 | (1) |
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212 | (2) |
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22.3 Amino Acid Metabolism |
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214 | (9) |
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214 | (1) |
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22.3.2 Nitrogen uptake and catabolite repression |
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214 | (2) |
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22.3.3 Amino acid anabolism, catabolism, and carbon skeletons |
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216 | (1) |
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22.3.4 Higher alcohol formation |
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216 | (2) |
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22.3.5 Acetate ester formation |
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218 | (1) |
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22.3.6 YAN in the winery - requirements, approaches, and consequences |
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219 | (2) |
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221 | (2) |
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223 | (7) |
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223 | (1) |
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22.4.2 Sulfide production and assimilation |
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223 | (3) |
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22.4.3 Nitrogen sources and H2S formation |
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226 | (1) |
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22.4.4 Timing of formation and residual H2S |
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227 | (1) |
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228 | (2) |
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22.5 Bacterial Fermentation Products |
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230 | (9) |
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230 | (1) |
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22.5.2 Lactic acid bacteria |
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230 | (5) |
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22.5.3 Spoilage of wine by bacteria |
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235 | (2) |
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237 | (2) |
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23 Grape-Derived Aroma Precursors |
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239 | (39) |
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23.1 Glycosidic Precursors to Wine Odorants |
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240 | (16) |
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240 | (2) |
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23.1.2 Formation of glycosidic aroma precursors in grape berries |
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242 | (3) |
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23.1.3 Glycosidic aroma precursors - extraction |
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245 | (1) |
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23.1.4 Hydrolysis of glycosidic aroma precursors - mechanisms |
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246 | (3) |
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23.1.5 Hydrolysis of glycosides under fermentation and aging conditions |
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249 | (3) |
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252 | (4) |
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256 | (9) |
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256 | (1) |
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23.2.2 Formation of S-conjugate precursors in berries and juice |
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257 | (2) |
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23.2.3 Conversion of S-conjugate precursors during fermentation |
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259 | (3) |
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23.2.4 Mass balance and alternative pathways to volatile thiol formation |
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262 | (1) |
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263 | (2) |
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23.3 Conversion of Variety Specific Components, Other |
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265 | (13) |
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265 | (1) |
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23.3.2 Polyunsaturated fatty acid precursors of C6 compounds |
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265 | (4) |
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23.3.3 Hydroxycinnamic acids, Brettanomyces, and volatile phenols |
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269 | (4) |
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23.3.4 S-methylmethionine and dimethyl sulfide |
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273 | (2) |
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275 | (3) |
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278 | (16) |
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278 | (1) |
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278 | (2) |
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24.3 The central tenets of wine oxidation |
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280 | (3) |
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24.4 The central tenets of quinone reactions |
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283 | (5) |
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24.5 The central tenets of the Fenton reaction and byproducts |
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288 | (3) |
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291 | (3) |
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25 Topics Related to Aging |
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294 | (24) |
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294 | (1) |
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25.2 Reactions involving red wine pigments |
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294 | (4) |
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25.3 Hydrolytic and pH-dependent reactions |
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298 | (5) |
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25.4 Activation energy and temperature effects on aging |
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303 | (1) |
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25.5 Effects of oak storage |
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304 | (5) |
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25.6 Sensory effects of different aging conditions |
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309 | (3) |
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312 | (1) |
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313 | (5) |
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26 The Chemistry of Post-fermentation Processing |
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318 | (59) |
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319 | (13) |
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319 | (1) |
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26.1.2 KHT crystal properties and solubility |
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320 | (2) |
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26.1.3 Critical factors for KHT precipitation |
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322 | (3) |
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26.1.4 Testing for KHT stability |
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325 | (2) |
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26.1.5 Treatments for preventing KHT precipitation |
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327 | (3) |
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26.1.6 CaT and related precipitates |
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330 | (1) |
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330 | (2) |
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332 | (14) |
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332 | (1) |
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26.2.2 Tannin fining with proteins |
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333 | (5) |
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26.2.3 Protein fining with bentonite |
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338 | (3) |
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26.2.4 Miscellaneous fining and related treatments |
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341 | (2) |
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343 | (3) |
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26.3 Particle Filtration and Reverse Osmosis |
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346 | (13) |
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346 | (1) |
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26.3.2 Definitions, principles, and characteristics of winery filtration |
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347 | (3) |
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26.3.3 Filtration and fouling |
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350 | (4) |
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354 | (1) |
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26.3.5 Sensory effects of filtration |
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355 | (2) |
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357 | (2) |
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359 | (18) |
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359 | (1) |
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26.4.2 Vapor-liquid equilibria |
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360 | (5) |
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26.4.3 Batch and continuous distillation |
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365 | (8) |
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26.4.4 Spirit composition and cask maturation |
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373 | (2) |
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375 | (2) |
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27 Additives and Processing Aids |
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377 | (6) |
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377 | (1) |
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27.2 Regulations and terminology |
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377 | (2) |
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27.3 Additives and processing aids: functions and comparison across regions |
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379 | (3) |
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382 | (1) |
Part C Case Studies: Recent Advances in Wine Chemistry |
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383 | (37) |
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385 | (7) |
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385 | (1) |
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28.2 Fraud - categories and detection approaches |
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385 | (2) |
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28.3 Stable isotope ratio analysis to detect glycerol adulteration |
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387 | (2) |
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28.4 Future challenges in wine authentication |
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389 | (1) |
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390 | (2) |
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29 Optimizing White Wine Aromas |
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392 | (5) |
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392 | (1) |
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29.2 Enhancement of varietal thiols |
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392 | (2) |
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29.3 Cofermentation and spontaneous fermentation |
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394 | (1) |
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395 | (2) |
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30 Appearance of Reduced Aromas during Bottle Storage |
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397 | (3) |
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397 | (1) |
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30.2 Potential latent sources of compounds responsible for reduced aromas |
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397 | (2) |
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399 | (1) |
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31 Grape Genetics, Chemistry, and Breeding |
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400 | (4) |
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400 | (1) |
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31.2 Breeding new varieties |
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400 | (2) |
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31.3 Genetics and selection |
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402 | (1) |
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403 | (1) |
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32 Analytical Innovations and Applications |
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404 | (13) |
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404 | (1) |
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32.2 Typical approaches to wine analysis |
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405 | (3) |
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32.3 Multivariate data analysis and chemometrics |
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408 | (1) |
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32.4 Chemometrics in practice - rapid methods for wine analysis |
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409 | (4) |
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32.5 Targeted and untargeted metabolomics of wine |
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413 | (1) |
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414 | (3) |
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33 New Approaches to Tannin Characterization |
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417 | (3) |
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417 | (1) |
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33.2 The challenge of astringency subclasses |
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418 | (1) |
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418 | (2) |
Index |
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420 | |