|
|
|
17 | (27) |
|
Components Parts of the Microscope |
|
|
17 | (4) |
|
Maintenance and cleaning of the microscope |
|
|
21 | (1) |
|
Focusing of the preparation and correct positioning of the observer |
|
|
22 | (2) |
|
Measuring lengths with the microscope |
|
|
24 | (3) |
|
Microscopic observation techniques |
|
|
27 | (8) |
|
|
|
27 | (3) |
|
|
|
30 | (2) |
|
Interference contrast viewing |
|
|
32 | (1) |
|
|
|
32 | (1) |
|
Viewing by oblique or anaxial illumination |
|
|
33 | (1) |
|
|
|
34 | (1) |
|
Preparation and set-up for microscopic observation |
|
|
35 | (14) |
|
|
|
35 | (5) |
|
|
|
40 | (1) |
|
|
|
41 | (2) |
|
Vital staining of yeast cultures with methylene blue |
|
|
43 | (2) |
|
|
|
45 | (1) |
|
|
|
46 | (1) |
|
|
|
47 | (2) |
|
Counting bacteria and yeast cells in must and wine |
|
|
49 | (36) |
|
|
|
49 | (1) |
|
Determining microbial concentration in musts and wines |
|
|
49 | (4) |
|
Determining the total yeast cell count microscopically using counting chambers |
|
|
53 | (8) |
|
Determining yeast and bacterial load by growth on membrane filters |
|
|
61 | (5) |
|
|
|
66 | (1) |
|
Determining the concentration of yeast and bacteria by plate count on solid media |
|
|
67 | (5) |
|
Determining microbial load by means of epifluorescence |
|
|
72 | (13) |
|
|
|
85 | (14) |
|
Sterilization in the laboratory and ``microbiological stabilization'' in the wine cellar |
|
|
85 | (1) |
|
Sterilization techniques used in the laboratory: Establishing a sterile environment |
|
|
85 | (4) |
|
Sterilization of glass and metal instruments |
|
|
89 | (1) |
|
Sterilization of natural and synthetic substrates by heat treatment |
|
|
89 | (2) |
|
Preparation and preservation of must-substrates |
|
|
91 | (3) |
|
Elimination of microorganisms by centrifugation and preservation of natural musts by deep freezing |
|
|
94 | (1) |
|
|
|
95 | (4) |
|
The antiseptic effect of sulfur dioxide |
|
|
99 | (1) |
|
The technological criteria for the use of SO2 in the microbiological stabilization of wine |
|
|
99 | (1) |
|
What is molecular SO2 fraction? |
|
|
100 | (4) |
|
Calculating the molecular fractions of SO2 |
|
|
104 | (1) |
|
|
|
105 | (1) |
|
|
|
105 | (1) |
|
Alcohol concentration and temperature of must and wine |
|
|
105 | (3) |
|
The concept of the ``paralyzing dose'' of molecular SO2 |
|
|
108 | (4) |
|
Microbiological stabilization in sweet wines, contaminated with yeast cells highly resistant to SO2. The ``initial jolting dose'' concept |
|
|
112 | (5) |
|
The significance of the ``resistance level'' of a microbial cell biomass toward SO2 and other antiseptics in general |
|
|
117 | (2) |
|
The concept of ``selective pressure'' |
|
|
119 | (1) |
|
Concept of ``abiosis'' in a stabilized wine |
|
|
119 | (1) |
|
The resistance of malolactic bacteria to SO2 |
|
|
119 | (3) |
|
Micro biological stabilization of musts by SO2 addition |
|
|
122 | (3) |
|
Correlation between pH, buffer power, oxidation-reduction potential, microbiological stabilization and the acid taste of wine |
|
|
100 | (43) |
|
|
|
125 | (2) |
|
Microbiological importance of pH |
|
|
127 | (1) |
|
The Oxidation reduction potential |
|
|
128 | (2) |
|
Microbiological importance of redox potential |
|
|
130 | (1) |
|
|
|
130 | (2) |
|
Microbiological importance of buffer power |
|
|
132 | (1) |
|
Extant interaction between pH and BP in the determination of the acid sensation |
|
|
132 | (2) |
|
Organoleptic importance of pH and BP |
|
|
134 | (1) |
|
Effects on the acid sensation in the mouth by the addition of weak organic acids, strong inorganic acids, or strong bases, or by the biological degradation of malic acid and citric acid |
|
|
135 | (8) |
|
Alternative techniques to the use of sulfur dioxide for microbiological stabilization |
|
|
143 | (14) |
|
|
|
143 | (1) |
|
Irradiation with electrons |
|
|
144 | (2) |
|
|
|
146 | (1) |
|
|
|
146 | (1) |
|
High hydrostatic pressure |
|
|
146 | (2) |
|
Enzymatic lysis of bacterial and yeast cell walls |
|
|
148 | (2) |
|
|
|
150 | (1) |
|
The Fatty acids caprylic (n-octanoic; C8) and capric (n-decanoic; C10) |
|
|
151 | (6) |
|
|
|
157 | (10) |
|
Detersives, detergents and sanitizers |
|
|
157 | (1) |
|
|
|
158 | (1) |
|
Sodium and calcium hypochlorite |
|
|
158 | (1) |
|
|
|
158 | (1) |
|
|
|
159 | (1) |
|
|
|
159 | (1) |
|
|
|
160 | (1) |
|
|
|
160 | (1) |
|
|
|
160 | (1) |
|
Sanitizing production and bottling sites, equipment and containers |
|
|
161 | (3) |
|
Hygiene of grapes before and during the crush |
|
|
164 | (3) |
|
Taxonomy, cytology, biology and morphology of wine-associated yeasts |
|
|
167 | (26) |
|
|
|
167 | (1) |
|
The physiological classification of wine years |
|
|
168 | (1) |
|
|
|
168 | (1) |
|
|
|
168 | (1) |
|
|
|
169 | (2) |
|
|
|
171 | (6) |
|
|
|
177 | (1) |
|
Alternative nuclear phase and alternative life cycles |
|
|
178 | (2) |
|
Homothallism and heterothallism |
|
|
180 | (2) |
|
|
|
182 | (2) |
|
The morphology during vegetative multiplication |
|
|
184 | (1) |
|
The morphology during sexual reproduction |
|
|
185 | (1) |
|
|
|
185 | (1) |
|
Mycelium morphology during the formation of pseudo- and true mycelia |
|
|
186 | (2) |
|
|
|
188 | (1) |
|
Subdivision of the yeasts into morphological groups |
|
|
188 | (5) |
|
Isolation, selection and purification of wine yeasts |
|
|
193 | (26) |
|
|
|
193 | (1) |
|
The Concept of ``selected yeast'' |
|
|
194 | (1) |
|
The Selection of commercial wine yeast |
|
|
195 | (1) |
|
How the enologist should proceed |
|
|
196 | (1) |
|
The isolation of pure monoclonal population of yeast |
|
|
196 | (1) |
|
Equipment needed and media |
|
|
197 | (2) |
|
|
|
199 | (2) |
|
The preservation of yeast cultures in the laboratory |
|
|
201 | (1) |
|
The National Collection of Yeast and Bacteria selected for Wine (CNLBSV-ISE) |
|
|
|
General methodology criteria for the selection of specific yeast strains for the amelioration of wines |
|
|
201 | (2) |
|
Selection of isolated strains |
|
|
203 | (2) |
|
Nutritive synthetic medium (NSM) |
|
|
205 | (1) |
|
Preparation of the fermentation experiments |
|
|
206 | (1) |
|
Determination of the alcohologenic capability, sugar consumption and the sugar/alcohol conversion coefficient |
|
|
207 | (2) |
|
Determining the rate of alcohol production and the course of fermentation |
|
|
209 | (2) |
|
Fermentation and growth curves |
|
|
211 | (1) |
|
Determining the ability to produce acetic acid |
|
|
211 | (1) |
|
Determining the aptitude to degrade or produce malic acid or other organic acids |
|
|
212 | (1) |
|
Determination of the aptitude to produce characteristics aromatic and odorous substances, foam, and the modality of growth |
|
|
213 | (2) |
|
Determination of the aptitude to form sulfite and sulfide (H2S) |
|
|
215 | (1) |
|
The determination of the level of resistance to SO2 |
|
|
216 | (1) |
|
Preparations for fermentation experiments |
|
|
216 | (1) |
|
Determination of the ability to grow at low temperatures |
|
|
217 | (1) |
|
Determination of the ability to produce glycerol |
|
|
217 | (2) |
|
Oenological characteristics of selected yeast strains and their genetic improvement |
|
|
219 | (22) |
|
|
|
219 | (2) |
|
The Contribution of yeast to the liberation of aromatic substances and their transformation |
|
|
221 | (1) |
|
|
|
221 | (1) |
|
|
|
221 | (1) |
|
|
|
222 | (1) |
|
|
|
222 | (1) |
|
Yeast and bacteria enzymes considered important for the expression of the varietal characteristics of wines |
|
|
223 | (1) |
|
β-glucosidase, cinnamate decarboxylase |
|
|
223 | (1) |
|
Periplasmic proteases and autolysis |
|
|
223 | (1) |
|
|
|
223 | (1) |
|
Periplasmic pectolytic enzymes |
|
|
224 | (1) |
|
Periplasmic lipase and phospholipase |
|
|
225 | (1) |
|
Biotechnology applied to wine microorganisms |
|
|
225 | (7) |
|
Physiological and genetic features of some yeast characteristics important in enology |
|
|
232 | (1) |
|
|
|
232 | (3) |
|
|
|
235 | (1) |
|
Flocculent grrowth and aggregates |
|
|
236 | (1) |
|
|
|
236 | (1) |
|
Ability to form films (Flor) |
|
|
236 | (1) |
|
|
|
237 | (1) |
|
Alcohol production and resistance to prolonged anaerobiosis |
|
|
237 | (1) |
|
The importance of cultivation and storage techniques on the efficiency of selected cultures |
|
|
237 | (4) |
|
Current and prospective microbiological topics in enology |
|
|
241 | (12) |
|
Evidence for the existence of interactions between vine and yeast |
|
|
249 | (4) |
|
The metabolism of sugars and nitrogen by yeast |
|
|
253 | (16) |
|
The alcoholic fermentation |
|
|
253 | (5) |
|
The Genevois Equation and secondary products |
|
|
258 | (5) |
|
The Pasteur and Crabtree effects |
|
|
263 | (1) |
|
Glucophilic and fructophilic yeasts |
|
|
264 | (1) |
|
Fermentation in the presence of sulfur dioxide |
|
|
264 | (1) |
|
Use of the nitrogen compounds and the synthesis of amino acids |
|
|
265 | (4) |
|
The oxygen requirement for wine yeast |
|
|
269 | (14) |
|
The importance of oxygenation, the composition of must and the age of the cells in the inoculum |
|
|
269 | (1) |
|
When is it appropriate and necessary to furnish oxygen? |
|
|
270 | (3) |
|
The requirement of oxygen is essentially a function of substrate |
|
|
273 | (3) |
|
Advantages and risks of aeration and excessive oxygenation |
|
|
276 | (1) |
|
Oxygen, sterols and fatty acids as factors in survival and resistance to anaerobiosis and alcohol content |
|
|
277 | (6) |
|
Microbiological monitoring of must and wine |
|
|
283 | (8) |
|
|
|
283 | (1) |
|
|
|
283 | (1) |
|
|
|
284 | (1) |
|
Chemical and physical evaluation |
|
|
285 | (4) |
|
Techniques to prevent and cure microbiological alterations |
|
|
289 | (1) |
|
Management and control of the first and second alcohol fermentations |
|
|
289 | (1) |
|
Grape crushing and preparation of must for the primary fermentation |
|
|
289 | (1) |
|
Controlling the course of the primary fermentation and outcome of re-fermentation |
|
|
290 | (1) |
|
The use of selected yeast strains |
|
|
291 | (36) |
|
Commercial yeast cultures |
|
|
291 | (1) |
|
Yeast grown on solid media |
|
|
291 | (1) |
|
|
|
291 | (1) |
|
Yeast prepared as a concentrated paste |
|
|
292 | (1) |
|
|
|
292 | (1) |
|
|
|
293 | (1) |
|
Testing commercial dry powdered yeast cultures |
|
|
294 | (3) |
|
|
|
297 | (1) |
|
Yeast imbedded in polysaccharide gel |
|
|
297 | (2) |
|
Yeast cells confined in porous tubular membranes |
|
|
299 | (1) |
|
Techniques used in the preparation of starter cultures |
|
|
299 | (4) |
|
Preparation of a starter must culture for the second fermentation (tirage, prise de mousse) in a base wine |
|
|
303 | (1) |
|
Preparation of base wines for the second fermentation and prise de mousse in the production of sparkling wines |
|
|
304 | (2) |
|
The use of sulfur dioxide during grape crushing |
|
|
306 | (2) |
|
Use of fermentation activators |
|
|
308 | (1) |
|
Use of ammoniacal nitrogen |
|
|
309 | (4) |
|
Use of vitamin B1 (thiamin) |
|
|
313 | (3) |
|
Control of the fermentation temperature |
|
|
316 | (1) |
|
Controlling the degree of anaerobiosis during the alcoholic fermentation |
|
|
317 | (1) |
|
Untimely lactic and acetic bacterial activity |
|
|
318 | (1) |
|
Untimely activity by Shizosaccharomyces yeasts |
|
|
318 | (5) |
|
Delayed and failed starts, sluggish and stuck alcoholic fermentations |
|
|
323 | (2) |
|
Control of unwanted second fermentations |
|
|
325 | (1) |
|
Does a correlation exist between astronomical cycles and fermentation activity of yeasts and malolactic bacteria? |
|
|
325 | (2) |
|
The formation of organoleptically important metabolites |
|
|
327 | (12) |
|
Acetic acid (see
Chapter 19) |
|
|
327 | (1) |
|
|
|
327 | (1) |
|
L(+) and D(-) lactic acid |
|
|
327 | (1) |
|
|
|
327 | (1) |
|
|
|
328 | (1) |
|
|
|
328 | (1) |
|
|
|
328 | (1) |
|
|
|
328 | (1) |
|
|
|
329 | (1) |
|
Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide |
|
|
330 | (2) |
|
|
|
332 | (1) |
|
|
|
332 | (1) |
|
|
|
333 | (1) |
|
Urea, N-carbamyl amino acids, ethyl carbamates |
|
|
333 | (1) |
|
1-Octanol, 1-octyl acetate |
|
|
333 | (1) |
|
|
|
334 | (1) |
|
|
|
334 | (1) |
|
C-6 alcohol and aldehydes |
|
|
334 | (1) |
|
|
|
334 | (1) |
|
Long chain alcohols (higher alcohols) |
|
|
334 | (1) |
|
|
|
335 | (3) |
|
Important metabolites produced by malolactic bacteria |
|
|
338 | (1) |
|
The production of acetic acid by yeasts |
|
|
339 | (18) |
|
|
|
339 | (1) |
|
Experimental observations on the existence of metabolic factors in yeast that control the formation of acetic acid |
|
|
340 | (3) |
|
Experiments that emphasize the importance of clarification in the production of large amounts of acetic acid during alcoholic fermentation |
|
|
343 | (3) |
|
Importance of skin contact (maceration) |
|
|
346 | (1) |
|
The importance of the deposits resulting from clarification |
|
|
346 | (1) |
|
The importance of yeast strain, must pH and fermentation temperature |
|
|
346 | (3) |
|
The importance of ammonium nitrogen, amino acids and vitamins |
|
|
349 | (1) |
|
The importance of polyphenolic compounds |
|
|
349 | (1) |
|
Importance of unsaturated fatty acids and sterols |
|
|
349 | (1) |
|
Hypotheses proposed to explain the nature of the factor responsible for inhibiting the production of large quantities of acetic acid by the yeast |
|
|
350 | (7) |
|
Biological degradation of malic acid |
|
|
357 | (22) |
|
The maloalcoholic fermentation (MAF) |
|
|
357 | (1) |
|
Effects of the MAF on the harmonious balance of taste |
|
|
358 | (2) |
|
Experiments involving the use of Schizosaccharomyces |
|
|
360 | (1) |
|
The malolactic fermentation (MLF) |
|
|
361 | (2) |
|
Beneficial and deleterious aspects of malic acid biodegradation |
|
|
363 | (1) |
|
Optimal growth temperature |
|
|
364 | (1) |
|
The importance of pH, SO2 and alcohol content |
|
|
365 | (1) |
|
Others factors affecting MLF |
|
|
366 | (3) |
|
Vinification techniques that favor MLF |
|
|
369 | (2) |
|
Controlling the malolactic fermentation |
|
|
371 | (1) |
|
Inoculating with bacterial cultures for MLF |
|
|
372 | (4) |
|
What the winemaker can do in the cellar to prevent MLF |
|
|
376 | (1) |
|
Commercial aspects of the MLF |
|
|
377 | (1) |
|
Conclusive considerations on the problem of the malolactic fermentation |
|
|
378 | (1) |
|
Microbiological control of concentrated musts and sulfured musts |
|
|
379 | (10) |
|
Musts from partially dried grapes |
|
|
379 | (1) |
|
Concentrated Rectified Must (CRM) |
|
|
380 | (1) |
|
Microbiological control of CRM during production and storage |
|
|
381 | (1) |
|
Acidification experiments with tartaric acid and the addition of SO2 |
|
|
382 | (1) |
|
Microbiological stabilization through acidification with sulfuric acid |
|
|
382 | (4) |
|
Concentrated natural must |
|
|
386 | (3) |
|
The microbiological control of wine during storage |
|
|
389 | (20) |
|
|
|
389 | (1) |
|
Controlling flor spoilage |
|
|
389 | (1) |
|
Control of unwanted second fermentation (or refermentations) |
|
|
390 | (1) |
|
The formation of hydrogen sulfide |
|
|
391 | (2) |
|
|
|
393 | (1) |
|
Acetic acid bacteria and acetic spoilage |
|
|
394 | (1) |
|
The significance of volatile acidity in the diagnosis and prevention of alterations of microbial origin |
|
|
395 | (2) |
|
Bacterial oxidation of carbohydrates |
|
|
397 | (1) |
|
Acetic fermentation of ethyl alcohol |
|
|
398 | (1) |
|
|
|
399 | (1) |
|
Normal and ferrocious lactic acid fermentation |
|
|
399 | (4) |
|
Mannitic fermentation or sour-sweet conversion |
|
|
403 | (1) |
|
Bacterial degradation of pyruvic and citric acids |
|
|
404 | (1) |
|
Tartaric acid and glycerol degradation |
|
|
404 | (1) |
|
|
|
405 | (4) |
|
Methodology for the microbiological stabilization of musts and wines |
|
|
409 | (16) |
|
|
|
409 | (1) |
|
Microbiological stabilization during bottling |
|
|
410 | (1) |
|
Microbiological stabilization by filtration at the bottling stage |
|
|
411 | (5) |
|
The preparation of wine for sterile bottling |
|
|
416 | (1) |
|
The stabilization of wine and the sterilization of bottles by injection with sulfur dioxide before filling |
|
|
417 | (3) |
|
The determination of the quantity of sulfur dioxide to be add to wine |
|
|
420 | (1) |
|
Sterilization of bottling equipment |
|
|
421 | (1) |
|
Sterilization of natural cork stoppers and the corker |
|
|
422 | (2) |
|
Other general considerations |
|
|
424 | (1) |
|
Microbiological stabilization of wine through thermal treatment. Pasteurization and hot bottling |
|
|
425 | (8) |
|
Destructive effect of heat on cellular life |
|
|
425 | (1) |
|
Factors which influence the ``lethal temperature'' value |
|
|
426 | (1) |
|
The effect of medium composition |
|
|
426 | (1) |
|
The effect of hydrogen ion concentration |
|
|
427 | (1) |
|
The effect of carbon dioxide under pressure |
|
|
427 | (1) |
|
|
|
428 | (1) |
|
The effect of sulfur dioxide |
|
|
428 | (1) |
|
The effect of the pasteurization unit |
|
|
428 | (3) |
|
Hot bottling, pasteurization in the bottling line and in-bottle pasteurization |
|
|
431 | (2) |
|
Microbiological stabilization through filtration |
|
|
433 | (20) |
|
|
|
433 | (4) |
|
Relationship between shape and size of microorganisms and the types of filtering materials used |
|
|
437 | (1) |
|
Characteristics and sterilizing capacity of different filtration materials |
|
|
438 | (1) |
|
Deep filtering materials with sieving action |
|
|
439 | (2) |
|
Filtering materials prepared as stacked disks or pleated membrances (cartridges) |
|
|
441 | (2) |
|
Tests used to evaluate membrances |
|
|
443 | (2) |
|
|
|
445 | (2) |
|
Filtering materials acting solely as a sieve |
|
|
447 | (1) |
|
Cross-flow or tangential filtration |
|
|
447 | (6) |
| Appendix Microscopic and chemical assays used for the identification of sediment. Techniques used to determine a wine's propensity to develop turbidity |
|
453 | (8) |
|
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
Calcium tartrate, racemic calcium, tartrate, calcium oxalate |
|
|
454 | (1) |
|
|
|
454 | (1) |
|
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
Copper sulfide or sulfite |
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
Ferric and ferrous ferrocyanide |
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
|
|
456 | (2) |
|
Assessing wine stabilization procedures |
|
|
458 | (1) |
|
Procedures to verify the resistance of wine to air |
|
|
458 | (1) |
|
Testing resistance to aeration with oxygenated water |
|
|
458 | (1) |
|
Testing for heat stability |
|
|
458 | (3) |
|
Testing for cold stability |
|
|
| Bibliography |
|
461 | (22) |
| Index |
|
483 | |
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