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E-book: Understanding Mammalian Locomotion: Concepts and Applications

(University of Magdeburg Germany)
  • Format: PDF+DRM
  • Pub. Date: 22-Jan-2016
  • Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell
  • Language: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781119113737
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Understanding Mammalian Locomotion: Concepts and ApplicationsLarger Image
  • Format: PDF+DRM
  • Pub. Date: 22-Jan-2016
  • Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell
  • Language: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781119113737
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Understanding Mammalian Locomotion will formally introduce the emerging perspective of collision dynamics in mammalian terrestrial locomotion and explain how it influences the interpretation of form and functional capabilities. The objective is to bring the reader interested in the function and mechanics of mammalian terrestrial locomotion to a sophisticated conceptual understanding of the relevant mechanics and the current debate ongoing in the field
List of Contributors xv
Preface xvii
Chapter 1 Concepts Through Time: Historical Perspectives on Mammalian Locomotion 1(26)
John E.A. Bertram
1.1 Introduction
1(1)
1.2 The ancients and the contemplation of motion
2(1)
1.3 The European Renaissance and foundations of the age of discovery
3(2)
1.4 The era of technological observation
5(2)
1.5 Physiology and mechanics of terrestrial locomotion - cost and consequences
7(3)
1.6 Comparative studies of gait
10(3)
1.6 Re-interpreting the mechanics: A fork in the road, or simply seeing the other side of the coin?
13(1)
1.7 The biological source of cost
13(1)
1.8 The physical source of cost (with biological consequences) - the road less traveled
14(7)
1.9 Conclusions
21(1)
References
21(6)
Chapter 2 Considering Gaits: Descriptive Approaches 27(24)
John E.A. Bertram
2.1 Introduction
27(1)
2.2 Defining the fundamental gaits
28(2)
2.3 Classifying and comparing the fundamental gaits
30(2)
2.4 Symmetric gaits
32(2)
2.5 Asymmetric gaits
34(6)
2.6 Beyond "Hildebrand plots"
40(3)
2.7 Statistical classification
43(2)
2.8 Neural regulation and emergent criteria
45(2)
2.9 Mechanical measures as descriptions of gaits
47(1)
2.10 Conclusion
47(1)
References
48(3)
Chapter 3 Muscles as Actuators 51(28)
Anne K. Gutmann
John E.A. Bertram
3.1 Introduction
51(1)
3.2 Basic muscle operation
52(7)
3.2.1 Sliding filament theory - the basis for cross-bridge theory
52(1)
3.2.2 Basic cross-bridge theory
52(5)
3.2.3 Multi-state cross-bridge models
57(2)
3.3 Some alternatives to cross-bridge theory
59(1)
3.4 Force production
60(6)
3.4.1 Isometric force production
60(3)
3.4.2 Non-isometric force production
63(3)
3.5 The Hill-type model
66(2)
3.6 Optimizing work, power, and efficiency
68(2)
3.7 Muscle architecture
70(3)
3.7.1 The sarcomere as the fundamental contractile unit
70(1)
3.7.2 Muscle geometry
70(2)
3.7.3 Elastic energy storage and return
72(1)
3.7.4 Damping/energy dissipation
72(1)
3.8 Other factors that influence muscle performance
73(2)
3.8.1 Fiber type
73(2)
3.9 Activation and recruitment
75(1)
3.10 What does muscle do best?
76(1)
References
76(3)
Chapter 4 Concepts in Locomotion: Levers, Struts, Pendula and Springs 79(32)
John E.A. Bertram
4.1 Introduction
79(4)
4.2 The limb: How details can obscure functional role
83(2)
4.3 Limb function in stability and the concept of the "effective limb"
85(4)
4.3.1 Considering the mechanisms of stability
85(3)
4.3.2 The role of the effective limb
88(1)
4.4 Levers and struts
89(3)
4.5 Ground reaction force in gaits
92(6)
4.5.1 Trot
94(2)
4.5.2 Walk
96(1)
4.5.3 Gallop
97(1)
4.6 The consequence of applied force: CoM motion, pendula and springs
98(4)
4.7 Energy exchange in locomotion - valuable or inevitable?
102(1)
4.8 Momentum and energy in locomotion: Dynamic fundamentals
103(1)
4.9 Energy - lost unless recovered, or available unless lost?
104(1)
References
105(6)
Chapter 5 Concepts in Locomotion: Wheels, Spokes, Collisions and Insight from the Center of Mass 111(32)
John E.A. Bertram
5.1 Introduction
111(1)
5.2 Understanding brachiation: An analogy for terrestrial locomotion
112(5)
5.3 Bipedal walking: Inverted pendulum or inverted "collision-limiting brachiator analog"?
117(3)
5.4 Basic dynamics of the step-to-step transition in bipedal walking
120(4)
5.5 Subtle dynamics of the step-to-step transition in bipedal walking and running
124(6)
5.6 Pseudo-elastic motion and true elastic return in running gaits
130(1)
5.7 Managing CoM motion in quadrupedal gaits
131(7)
5.7.1 Walk
132(1)
5.7.2 Trot
133(1)
5.7.3 Gallop
133(5)
5.8 Conclusion
138(1)
References
139(4)
Chapter 6 Reductionist Models of Walking and Running 143(30)
James R. Usherwood
6.1 Part 1: Bipedal locomotion and "the ultimate cost of legged locomotion?"
143(15)
6.1.1 Introduction
143(1)
6.1.2 Reductionist models of walking
144(6)
6.1.3 The benefit of considering locomotion as inelastic
150(8)
6.2 Part 2: quadrupedal locomotion
158(8)
6.2.1 Introduction
158(1)
6.2.2 Quadrupedal dynamic walking and collisions
158(3)
6.2.3 Higher speed quadrupedal gaits
161(1)
6.2.4 Further success of reductionist mechanics
162(4)
Appendix A: Analytical approximation for costs of transport including legs and "guts and gonads" losses
166(4)
6A.1 List of symbols
166(1)
6A.2 Period definitions for a symmetrically running biped
166(1)
6A.3 Ideal work for the leg
167(1)
6A.4 Vertical work calculations for leg
168(1)
6A.5 Horizontal work calculations for leg
169(1)
6A.6 Hysteresis costs of "guts and gonads" deflections
169(1)
6A.7 Cost of transport
170(1)
References
170(3)
Chapter 7 Whole-Body Mechanics: How Leg Compliance Shapes the Way We Move 173(20)
Andre Seyfarth
Hartmut Geyer
Susanne Lipfert
J. Rummel
Yvonne Blum
M. Maus
D. Maykranz
7.1 Introduction
173(2)
7.2 Jumping for distance - a goal-directed movement
175(2)
7.3 Running for distance - what is the goal?
177(1)
7.4 Cyclic stability in running
178(1)
7.5 The wheel in the leg - how leg retraction enhances running stability
179(1)
7.6 Walking with compliant legs
180(4)
7.7 Adding an elastically coupled foot to the spring-mass model
184(1)
7.8 The segmented leg - how does joint function translate into leg function?
185(2)
7.9 Keeping the trunk upright during locomotion
187(1)
7.10 The challenge of setting up more complex models
188(2)
Notes
190(1)
References
190(3)
Chapter 8 The Most Important Feature of an Organism's Biology: Dimension, Similarity and Scale 193(36)
John E.A. Bertram
8.1 Introduction
193(1)
8.2 The most basic principle: Surface area to volume relations
194(3)
8.3 Assessing scale effects
197(1)
8.4 Physiology and scaling
198(5)
8.5 The allometric equation: The power function of scaling
203(4)
8.6 The standard scaling models
207(3)
8.6.1 Geometric similarity
208(1)
8.6.2 Static stress similarity
209(1)
8.6.3 Elastic similarity
209(1)
8.7 Differential scaling - where the limit may change
210(5)
8.7.1 Assessing the assumptions
215(1)
8.8 A fractal view of scaling
215(2)
8.9 Making valid comparisons: Measurement, dimension and functional criteria
217(6)
8.9.1 Considering units
217(2)
8.9.2 Fundamental and derived units
219(3)
8.9.3 Froude number: A dimensionless example
222(1)
References
223(6)
Chapter 9 Accounting for the Influence of Animal Size on Biomechanical Variables: Concepts and Considerations 229(22)
Sharon Bullimore
9.1 Introduction
229(1)
9.2 Commonly used approaches to accounting for size differences
230(7)
9.2.1 Dividing by body mass
230(2)
9.2.2 Dimensionless parameters
232(5)
9.3 Empirical scaling relationships
237(1)
9.4 Selected biomechanical parameters
238(9)
9.4.1 Ground reaction force
238(1)
9.4.2 Muscle force
239(3)
9.4.3 Muscle velocity
242(1)
9.4.4 Running speed
242(2)
9.4.5 Jump height
244(2)
9.4.6 Elastic energy storage
246(1)
9.5 Conclusions
247(1)
Acknowledgements
247(1)
References
247(4)
Chapter 10 Locomotion in Small Tetrapods: Size-Based Limitations to "Universal Rules" in Locomotion 251(26)
Audrone R. Biknevicius
Stephen M. Reilly
Elvedin Kljuno
10.1 Introduction
251(3)
10.2 Active mechanisms contributing to the high cost of transport in small tetrapods
254(1)
10.3 Limited passive mechanisms for reducing cost of transport in small tetrapods
255(2)
10.4 Gait transitions from vaulting to bouncing mechanics
257(5)
10.5 The "unsteadiness" of most terrestrial locomotion
262(3)
Appendix - a model of non-steady speed walking
265(6)
10A.1 Spring-mass inverted pendulum model of walking
265(4)
10A.2 Recovery ratio calculation
269(2)
References
271(6)
Chapter 11 Non-Steady Locomotion 277(30)
Monica A. Daley
11.1 Introduction
277(2)
11.1.1 Why study non-steady locomotion?
278(1)
11.2 Approaches to studying non-steady locomotion
279(3)
11.2.1 Simple mechanical models
280(1)
11.2.2 Research approaches to non-steady locomotion
281(1)
11.3 Themes from recent studies of non-steady locomotion
282(6)
11.3.1 Limits to maximal acceleration
282(1)
11.3.2 Morphological and behavioral factors in turning mechanics
283(5)
11.4 The role of intrinsic mechanics for stability and robustness of locomotion
288(11)
11.4.1 Some definitions
289(1)
11.4.2 Measures of sensitivity and robustness
290(1)
11.4.3 What do we learn about stability from simple models of running?
291(4)
11.4.4 Limitations to stability analysis of simple models
295(1)
11.4.5 The relationship between ground contact conditions and leg mechanics on uneven terrain
296(2)
11.4.6 Compromises among economy, robustness and injury avoidance in uneven terrain
298(1)
11.5 Proximal-distal inter-joint coordination in non-steady locomotion
299(3)
References
302(5)
Chapter 12 The Evolution of Terrestrial Locomotion in Bats: The Bad, the Ugly, and the Good 307(18)
Daniel K. Riskin
John E.A. Bertram
John W. Hermanson
12.1 Bats on the ground: Like fish out of water?
307(1)
12.2 Species-1evel variation in walking ability
308(1)
12.3 How does anatomy influence crawling ability?
309(2)
12.4 Hindlimbs and the evolution of flight
311(4)
12.5 Moving a bat's body on land: The kinematics of quadrupedal locomotion
315(3)
12.6 Evolutionary pressures leading to capable terrestrial locomotion
318(1)
12.7 Conclusions and future work
319(1)
Acknowledgements
320(1)
References
320(5)
Chapter 13 The Fight or Flight Dichotomy: Functional Trade-Off in Specialization for Aggression Versus Locomotion 325(24)
David R. Carrier
13.1 Introduction
325(4)
13.1.1 Why fighting is important
327(1)
13.1.2 Size sexual dimorphism as an indicator of male-male aggression
328(1)
13.2 Trade-offs in specialization for aggression versus locomotion
329(9)
13.2.1 The evolution of short legs - specialization for aggression?
329(2)
13.2.2 Muscle architecture of limbs specialized for running versus fighting
331(3)
13.2.3 Mechanical properties of limb bones that are specialized for running versus fighting
334(1)
13.2.4 The function of foot posture: Aggression versus locomotor economy
334(4)
13.3 Discussion
338(3)
References
341(8)
Chapter 14 Design for Prodigious Size without Extreme Body Mass: Dwarf Elephants, Differential Scaling and Implications for Functional Adaptation 349(20)
John E.A. Bertram
14.1 Introduction
349(2)
14.2 Elephant form, mammalian scaling and dwarfing
351(6)
14.2.1 Measurements
356(1)
14.2.2 Observations
356(1)
14.3 Interpretation
357(7)
Acknowledgements
364(1)
References
364(5)
Chapter 15 Basic Mechanisms of Bipedal Locomotion: Head-Supported Loads and Strategies to Reduce the Cost of Walking 369(16)
James R. Usherwood
John E.A. Bertram
15.1 Introduction
369(1)
15.2 Head-supported loads in human-mediated transport
370(3)
15.2.1 Can the evidence be depended upon?
371(2)
15.3 Potential energy saving advantages
373(3)
15.4 A simple alternative model
376(6)
15.5 Conclusions
382(1)
References
382(3)
Chapter 16 Would a Horse on the Moon Gallop? Directions Available in Locomotion Research (and How Not to Spend Too Much Time Exploring Blind Alleys) 385(8)
John E.A. Bertram
16.1 Introduction
385(7)
References
392(1)
Index 393
John E.A. Bertram is a Professor in the Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Cumming School of Medicine, and adjunct Professor in the Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, at the University of Calgary in Calgary, AB, Canada
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